;
;
;Ulitimate Civ II - Civilopedia Descriptions Text File -- Copyright (c) 1997 MicroProse Software, Inc. 
;PLEASE MAKE A COPY OF THE ORIGINAL TEXT FILE BEFORE YOU MAKE ANY CHANGES!
;
;
;

@ADVANCE_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: This section consists (verbatim) of the following files from the original Civilopedia, ;strung together to make one contiguous section: ADVANC1.PDE, ADVANC2.PDE, ADVANC3.PDE,
;and ADVANC4.PDE. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;
; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,
; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that
; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Amphibious Warfare will be the 55'th (remember,
; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.
; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.
; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.
;
@@ADVANCE_INDEX
0,			; Advanced Flight
1,			; Alphabet
54,			; Amphibious Warfare
2,			; Astronomy
3,			; Atomic Theory
4,			; Automobile
5,			; Banking
6,			; Bridge Building
7,			; Bronze Working
8,			; Ceremonial Burial
9,			; Chemistry
10,			; Chivalry
11,			; Code of Laws
55,			; Combined Arms
12,			; Combustion
13,			; Communism
14,			; Computers
15,			; Conscription
16,			; Construction
17,			; The Corporation
18,			; Currency
19,			; Democracy
56,			; Economics
20,			; Electricity
21,			; Electronics
22,			; Engineering
57,			; Environmentalism
58,			; Espionage
23,			; Explosives
24,			; Feudalism
25,			; Flight
59,			; Fundamentalism
26,			; Fusion Power
27,			; Genetic Engineering
60,			; Guerrilla Warfare
79,			; Gunpowder
80,			; Horseback Riding
81,			; Industrialization
82,			; Invention
83,			; Iron Working
28,			; Labor Union
61,			; The Laser
62,			; Leadership
29,			; Literacy
63,			; Machine Tools
30,			; Magnetism
31,			; Map Making
32,			; Masonry
33,			; Mass Production
34,			; Mathematics
35,			; Medicine
36,			; Metallurgy
64,			; Miniaturization
65,			; Mobile Warfare
37,			; Monarchy
66,			; Monotheism
38,			; Mysticism
39,			; Navigation
40,			; Nuclear Fission
41,			; Nuclear Power
42,			; Philosophy
43,			; Physics
44,			; Plastics
-1,			; Plumbing
68,			; Polytheism
45,			; Pottery
69,			; Radio
46,			; Railroad
47,			; Recycling
48,			; Refining
70,			; Refrigeration
49,			; The Republic
50,			; Robotics
51,			; Rocketry
71,			; Sanitation
72,			; Seafaring
52,			; Space Flight
73,			; Stealth
53,			; Steam Engine
84,			; Steel
85,			; Superconductor
74,			; Tactics
75,			; Theology
86,			; Theory of Gravity
87,			; Trade
88,			; University
76,			; Warrior Code
77,			; The Wheel
78,			; Writing
67,			; Future Technology
-1,			; User Def Tech A
-1,			; User Def Tech B
-1,			; User Def Tech C
-1,			; Extra Advance 1
-1,			; Extra Advance 2
-1,			; Extra Advance 3
-1,			; Extra Advance 4
-1,			; Extra Advance 5
-1,			; Extra Advance 6
-1,			; Extra Advance 7
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Advanced Flight
Not everything comes from a factory, you consumer whore!
 
@@Alphabet
After losing the 2000 Presidential election, Al Gore went back to what he did best- inventing the Internet.  Since the Internet was already invented, and reinventing it would be dumbest thing since reinventing the wheel, Gore developed a better version, which became known as the Internet2.  Subsequently, he would go on to invent additonal faster versions, including the Internet3 and the InternetPi.  Anime fans and other lonely people worldwide rejoiced.  

@@Astronomy
NIMBYs, an acronym for Not In My Back Yard, are every developer's second-worst nightmare, right up there after endangered swamp critters.  While some NIMBYs save neighborhoods and cute bunnies from freeways, others abuse the system to freeze all development.  

Architectural design (read: gingerbread facades) and community meetings can go a long way in convincing fence-sitters, but for dealing with hardcore NIMBYs...it's time to bring back a little of Old California.  

@@Atomic Theory
nil

@@Automobile
The current fundamental particle of the universe, Superstrings are, well, strings with a lot of extra dimensions.  For scientists, Superstring Theory promises a deeper understanding of the universe.  

For science fiction writers, Superstring Theory promises lots of cool explosions.  

@@Banking
Often with a fantasy theme, Massively Multiplayer Online Role Playing Games such as EverCrack help technically adept but socially inept people cope with life.  With players being able to choose characters of other genders and species, MMORPGs have come under sustained attack by the Religious Right, who claim it is a gateway drug for homosexuality, bestiality, and Satanism.

@@Bridge Building
Engineers are essential to the functioning of any industrialized society.  Traditionally, engineers dealt mostly with the hard sciences of physics and chemistry, however, the field has since spread to include new branches such as:

Bioengineering - design of machines that interface with living organisms

Environmental engineering - cleaning up the mess of other engineers

Value engineering - screwing up the work of other engineers by making it cheap in all senses of the word.

@@Bronze Working
Stem cells are versatile cells that can be grown into other types of cells.  They have great medical value, but also stir up issues of moral values.  This is partly caused by poor if not outright incorrect biology educations that lead citizens to think that stem cell therapy involves eating babies.  

In reaction to faith-based federal funding bans for research, Californians passed Proposition 71 in 2004 to fund it themselves.  Hopefully this will offer the Western Hemisphere a chance to catch up to the more level-headed Europeans and Asians.  

@@Ceremonial Burial
At some point in the late 20th century, some angry man got the brilliant idea that other likeminded angry stupid white men would enjoy listening to them rant for hours on end.  On your typical city street, such a person would be known as a bum, lunatic, or nutcase.  On the air, they are known as Talk Radio Hosts.  

While listening to Talk Radio does anything but make one content, it does work well to shift blame to the vast bleeding heart liberal conspiracy. 

@@Chemistry
No Swimming signs' hundred year reign over the waterways finally came down when the civil union of environmentalism and nanoengineering produced cheap means of cleaning the environment.  

The breakthrough came as a serendipitous result of scientists working to alleviate the Second Oil Crunch.  Hoping to synthezize oil from human blood, researcher Esther Chloride instead created a microorganism that converted industrial sludge into cafeteria food, which could then be safely removed from the water supply by hungry undergrads.

@@Chivalry
It wasn't until the Internets that people finally realized what they were missing out in shithole suburbia.  What began with flame wars over science fiction computer games moved to political trolling, mulitplayer gaming, and finally trips to bars in certain metropolitan areas.  

Where suburban life was filled with the troubles of fitting in, urban life was simply a matter of choosing the right fit.  Feeling for a change?  A different world is just a couple bus stops away.  

@@Code of Laws
After decades of growth and acquisiton, EA Games had grown into the Microsoft of games, with all the good and more of the bad connotations.  While late 20th century growth had been spectacular as the company's revenue eclipsed movie studios, the real break came with the release of the first Massively Multiplayer Online Sports Game.  

While geeks had enjoyed inventing new lives online for decades, EA Playa 2010 introduced the online alter ego to the much larger sports fan market.  Ironically, excessive gaming decreased wannabe pro players' physical strength and skills, but with graphics and sound getting better, more and more people would discover the sublime thrill of running in a touchdown with a controller in one hand and a forty in the other.  

@@Combustion
The wildest dreams of fashionistas, schiznophrenics, and the pathologically self conscious were realized in a San Francisco biology lab by the scientist Polly Siffan, also known as Dr. Point, Pylkka, and no less than twenty five other identities in her/his/its recent career.  

Using reprogrammed stem cells, new body parts could be lab-grown and subsequently grafted onto the user.  Closets sprouted cryogenic freezers as consumers purchased extra noses and ears to go with different outfits.  Medical benefits were also earthshattering.  

@@Communism
Beginning with college student antics involving Pac-Man costumes turned senior projects, Real World Gaming brought hordes of gamers out of the couch and onto the streets.  

Initially an underground phenomenon, Real World Gaming made headlines following a string of incidents where unsuspecting bystanders were mistaken for NPCs and repeatedly attacked by a constant stream of level-farming noobs.  As the games moved beyond adventure roleplays, Real World Gaming grew more and more mainstream until one could find old folks playing chess in the park with people in different time zones. 

@@Computers
While the G-1000 had been a ruthless killing machine, brutally terminating thousands of government workers, the same intricate technology that gave the G-1000 its superhuman and super-ordinary-robot strength and agility had numerous peaceful and semipeaceful applications.  

@@Conscription
Pulp science fiction authors were severely debunked when the Robot Age finally arrived.  There were global thermonucular wars, no riots, no enslavement of the human race, not even mass unemployment.  Why not?

Two words: system failure.  For every robot quietly working away, there was another blinking the blue eyes of death and leaving disgruntled users waiting for the local nerd to unscrew the back panel and press the litle reset button next to the battery.  

For the most part, Life After Robots proceeded much as it had before.  There were even border patrols (done by robots of course) on the lookout for truckloads of Mexican knockoffs being illegally imported and stealing market share.  Ah, capitalism.

@@Construction
The development of masonry led to a widespread use of stone in simple structures such as fortifications, but due to the weight and cumbersome nature of stone blocks, more complex structures had to be made of simpler materials. The need for the widespread use of more durable and permanent materials eventually became apparent, forcing ancient artisans to learn new techniques. The biggest problem to overcome was finding a stable way to span the distance between two upright columns or walls using stone blocks. To solve this problem, fundamental architectural elements such as the arch and vault evolved. These basic construction techniques allowed larger and more elaborate buildings to be created from stone and mortar. Many of the buildings erected by these early builders are still standing, a testament to the sound construction techniques employed in their construction.

@@Corporation
As businesses grow, they often find it necessary to raise large amounts of operating capital in order to expand their operations beyond a certain point, or to meet operating expenses. In these cases, one option available is to form a corporation and "go public", or sell shares of the business to investors. This arrangement allows the business to expand rapidly, while spreading the risks of the expansion among many people, reducing individual risk. Corporations also have legal advantages such as the right to sue, and the limitation of liability for the corporation's debt to the amount originally invested by the owners. Corporations as legal entities have existed since ancient Rome, although the joint-stock company as it is known today didn't begin operating until sometime in the 16th century.

@@Currency
As cities grew, their internal economies became more complicated. People became specialists, some primarily producing grain, some pottery, some bricks, etc. A system of barter developed, so that one individual's wares and services could be exchanged for those of another. Gold and silver were widely used in such transactions, but the pieces needed to be weighed and tested for purity each time they changed hands. In 600 BC, the Lydians found a way around this problem. They began the practice of shaping electrum, an alloy of gold and silver, into pieces of predetermined weight and purity, stamped with an official symbol. This idea caught on, and within 50 years all the important trading centers of the world had adopted similar practices. The widespread use of currency created universal standards of value, allowing people from various societies to conduct business almost anywhere without being forced to bring along bulky goods for trade and barter.

@@The Democracy
Democracy is a ruling system where the citizens have a great deal of control over the actions of the government, either directly or through elected representatives. Democratic governments can be traced back to the city-states of ancient Greece and Rome. Citizens would gather in a public forum, and each one would have the opportunity to speak and vote on issues affecting the community. This direct democracy system was possible due to the relatively small populations of the city-states. Starting in the 17th century, the monarchs of Europe began to be stripped of their absolute power, and by the end of the 19th century the citizens had a strong voice in government in many European nations. Large populations made public forums impractical, so the people elected groups of representatives to carry their views to the ruling powers. Strictly speaking, this type of system more closely resembles a republican system rather than a true democracy. This type of representative democracy is considered the best governing system in the modern world because of the personal and economic freedom enjoyed by the citizens.

@@Electricity
The phenomenon of electricity in the forms of lightning, static electricity, and magnetism has been witnessed by humans since the dawn of time. Electricity was not seriously studied, however, until the 17th century. Early electrical pioneers studied various electrical phenomena, and built devices both to generate and to measure electrical charges. In 1892, the electron theory was advanced by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, a Dutch physicist. This theory, which explains electricity as a reaction between positively and negatively charged electrons, formed the basis for modern electrical theory. Based on Lorentz's work, early engineers such as Thomas Edison pioneered methods allowing the widespread use of electricity as a power source.

@@Electronics
The field of electronics deals with the practical application and manipulation of electricity and electromagnetic phenomena. The invention of the vacuum tube in the early 20th century marked the beginning of modern electronics. The vacuum tube was capable of amplifying weak radio signals, allowing them to be transmitted over greater distances. Vacuum tubes also allowed music and voice to be superimposed onto radio waves for transmission. The early study of electronics revolutionized a number of fields, especially the field of communications. Because of the vacuum tube, the technology of radio communications was highly developed by World War II. After the war, electronics research continued to advance rapidly. Post-war advances include the earliest examples of digital computers and, eventually, transistors and integrated circuits: miniaturized replacements for the vacuum tube.

@@Engineering
Engineering is the application of scientific and mathematical principles to the design and/or manufacture of theoretical systems and physical objects. Prior to the mid-18th century, all engineering functions were carried out by military engineers. Their work involved the construction of roads, bridges, fortifications, and the performance of other duties relating to the military. In the late 18th century, civil engineers took over all nonmilitary engineering functions. Other fields of engineering prior to the 20th century included mining engineers, who designed mines and methods of mining, and mechanical engineers, who dealt with the design and construction of machinery. As new technologies developed, new fields of engineering developed along with them. Today, there are engineers specifically trained in nearly every field, from electronics and computers to chemistry and atomics.

@@Explosives
An explosive is a chemical compound or mixture that undergoes rapid combustion and produces heat, gas, and pressure effects. The earliest explosive compound known was gunpowder, which was first used in the13th century, and was the only explosive known for hundreds of years. The first modern explosive, a compound known as nitroglycerin, was discovered in 1846. Compounds similar to nitroglycerin are the most commonly used explosives today. Explosives vary in brisance, or shattering effect, and in their stability under various environmental conditions. Aside from their obvious use in weaponry, explosives are also used in such peaceful applications as rocket propellants and for mining and demolition work.

@@Feudalism
In the unsettled times following the collapse of Charlemagne's Frankish empire, a new social and political system arose in Europe called feudalism. Derived from the concept of monarchy, feudalism was a hierarchical system in which each descending stratum owed allegiance to those above. The king, whose authority was second only to God, granted tracts of land, or fiefs, to his barons. The barons might then grant smaller estates to knights, who swore to protect and serve the baron. The knights, in turn, might then grant fractions of their fiefs to subordinates who would serve the knights. At the bottom of the feudal pyramid were the serfs, who could not own land, and acted essentially as slave laborers who worked the land for their masters. Feudalism began to decline in the 13th century, when standing armies and mercenaries began to fulfill the protective role once served by the vassals and knights.

@@Flight
The idea of flight has tantalized humans since the dawn of time. Studies regarding the possibility of producing a flying machine date back to the 13th century. In the 16th century, Leonardo da Vinci proposed a number of inventions that eventually came to pass, including the propeller and the parachute. Throughout the 19th century, various engineers experimented successfully with gliders, and experiments with compressed air and steam engines attempted to produce self-powered flight with limited success. The key to success in powered flight was the invention of the internal combustion engine. Just after the turn of the 20th century, Orville and Wilbur Wright made the first four controlled, sustained human flights at Kitty Hawk, N.C. The technology of flight advanced rapidly from this landmark event, and within a relatively few years, aircraft were circling the globe, safely delivering passengers and mail at record speeds.

@@Fusion Power
Nuclear Fusion is the process by which two atomic nuclei combine to form one heavier atomic nucleus,  giving off tremendous energy as a by-product. This type of nuclear reaction, which is the process by which stars such as the sun produce heat and light, requires very high temperatures and an enormous amount of pressure to initiate, and a reliable system of fuel containment to sustain. Fusion reactions have been produced in artificial environments on Earth by bombarding deuterium with high-energy particles accelerated in a cyclotron. Unfortunately, the amount of energy released in the reaction was considerably less than the energy required to accelerate the particles. Brief fusion reactions have been demonstrated in the detonation of thermonuclear weapons, but these reactions are useless for power generation because they cannot be controlled. If a way can be found to produce a controlled fusion reaction, this technology offers great promise as a source of electric power. The combination of abundant fuel sources and no harmful byproducts makes fusion power a safe alternative to the dangerous side effects produced by nuclear fission.

@@Genetic Engineering
Genetic Engineering involves the manipulation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA contains the genetic "code" which determines the inherited traits of living organisms. By removing a section of an organism's DNA and replacing it with that of another organism, the characteristics of the organism can be altered. Since its inception, genetic engineering has produced a number of important benefits, such as isolating the gene for interferon, a rare substance that may be of great value in the treatment of viral diseases and cancer. Genetic manipulation may someday also provide a cure for  birth defects and inherited diseases. Unfortunately, there are also potential dangers involved in this technology. Genetically engineered diseases, more communicable and virulent than any occurring in nature, could potentially be created in the laboratory by accident or maliciously. Such viruses could be used as a dreadful biological weapon. Domestic and international regulations regarding genetic experimentation exist to prevent such a situation from occurring.

@@Labor Union
Labor unions arose in the 18th and 19th century in response to the poor working conditions brought on by an intense competition for jobs, and the increasing dependence of the working class on their employers created by the move toward industrialization. Early labor unions, formed by skilled laborers in specific fields, met with opposition from both employers and the government. In the 19th century, laws were passed legalizing trade unions, and by the 20th century unions were formed in semi- or unskilled fields such as mining, transportation, and dock working. Binding their interests together and bargaining collectively, trade unions forced factory and business owners to provide better working conditions and economic status for their workers.

@@Literacy
Writing was a powerful new tool for the advancement of knowledge, but, like all tools, it was only useful if employed. Literacy, the ability to read and understand a written language, was originally a skill limited to priests and scribes. Because of this, knowledge was still spread to the masses orally. Eventually, improving systems of education brought literacy to private citizens. Civilizations in which a high percentage of the population was literate had faster technological and economic growth than those where literacy was less common. In the modern world, while industrialized nations such as the U.S. enjoy widespread literacy, undeveloped nations still have illiteracy rates approaching 80 percent of their overall population. Illiteracy severely stunts the development of a country, even more so now than in the ancient world.

@@Magnetism
The phenomenon of magnetism was known to the ancient Greeks, Romans, and Chinese. They observed that lodestone, an iron-bearing ore, attracted other iron. They also noted that pieces of iron that came into contact with lodestone gained magnetic properties as well. The electromagnetic force of attraction and repulsion between various substances is due to the motion of positively and negatively charged electrons. Every magnet has a positive and a negative side, called poles. Poles with a like charge repel one another, and poles with opposite charges attract one another. The study of magnetic phenomena soon showed that a free-floating magnet aligns itself with the Earth's magnetic field, one pole of the magnet pointing north, the other south. This was an important discovery, and led to the invention of the compass in the early 13th century. The use of the compass revolutionized sea travel by reducing the reliance on landmarks and stars for navigation.

@@Map Making
Maps provide a diagrammatic representation of an area, showing terrain features, cities, and other landmarks. The earliest maps were etched clay tablets charting Babylonian lands for the purposes of taxation. Around the same time, the Chinese produced regional maps drawn on silk cloth. In between 600 and 200 BC, the Greeks produced several maps of the known world, including the first map showing a primitive system of latitude and longitude. These early maps were primarily used by traders and merchants. Seamen, who often set their courses based only on the tales brought back by previous voyagers, benefited most from the science of map making.

@@Masonry
The early dwellings of most tribal cultures were built of materials that were readily available and easy to work with, such as bricks of clay and mud. As tribes gave up their nomadic ways and settled the first cities, they soon found that they had a need for more permanent and durable structures. The skill of masonry was developed to fill this need. The earliest stone structures consisted of little more than rocks which were stacked atop one another to form crude walls. Artisans soon began to square off the rocks, forming them into regular shapes and stacking them. These early examples of masonry used no mortar; the weight of the stacked stones provided overall strength and stability. Without the use of mortar and knowledge of architectural techniques, masonry was used primarily for simple structures such as fortifications. However, some examples of early masonry are quite spectacular, including the Great Pyramids in Egypt, which are still standing after thousands of years.

@@Mass Production
The idea of mass production began to take shape along with the factory system. The automation of production greatly increased productivity with a corresponding decrease in price for manufactured goods. In 1913, automobile manufacturer Henry Ford introduced the idea of assembly lines in his automobile plants. Products being built were conveyed from one work station to another along the line.  At each station, a worker expertly repeated a discreet segment of the assembly process. The product then moved to the next station, and so on until the finished product rolled off the end of the line. This innovative combination of specialization of labor and the use of automation revolutionized production of complex goods. Word of Ford's assembly line technique spread quickly, and this production method soon came to be used in most of the industrialized nations of the world.

@@Mathematics
Rudimentary arithmetic was purely quantitative, used to keep track of quantities and measurements in trade. Building on this fundamental base, ancient civilizations began to formulate more complex mathematical concepts. As early as 1800 BC, the Egyptians had developed a system for working with fractional numbers and simple algebraic problems. They also formulated geometric formulae for finding area and volume, and came up with a constant for determining the area of a circle that was very close to the value of pi. By about the 5th century BC, the mathematicians of Greece had greatly contributed to both geometry and algebra. Around the same time, advanced mathematics was applied to other sciences and fields of study such as astronomy and mechanics. One of the earliest applications of mathematical principles was in the construction of complex weaponry such as the catapult.

@@Medicine
Primitive man attributed the onset of serious disease as the influence of the gods, or possession by evil spirits. Over time, however, it was found that such "possessions" could be treated through the use of elixirs made from plant extracts. Methods were also developed to clean and treat wounds, and set fractured bones. The ancient Greeks established the first schools to teach medical sciences circa 500 BC. The texts produced by the students of these schools, most notably Hippocrates, who is considered the father of medicine, based his theories of the human body on observation and reasoning rather than supernatural intervention. Continued study of diseases over the years, combined with the dissection and study of the human body in the 13th century, pointed out flaws in early Greek theories, and led to more accurate medical texts based on detailed analysis rather than conjecture. By the 18th century, the same methods of analysis and observation used by scientists in other fields were applied to the study of medicine. This paved the way for the increasingly effective methods of treatment and surgery that have prevailed over the last 200 years.

@@Metallurgy
Metallurgy is the study of the properties of metals and the methods used to separate metal deposits from metal-bearing ores. Through the course of history, artisans have switched the materials from which they constructed weapons and tools to harder, more durable metals as they were discovered. However, metallurgy as a science wasn't studied in earnest until the powers of Europe began to compete against one another in an attempt to design better and more effective weapons starting around the14th century. Constant improvements in metallurgy led to the discovery of new metals and alloys that were stronger, lighter, and cheaper. As a result of this race for military dominance, Europeans produced some of the most advanced weaponry in the world during this time period.

@@The Monarchy
Rule by monarchy developed as a logical extension of the absolute rule of tribal chieftains. Many of the earliest monarchs, such as those in ancient Egypt, claimed that they ruled by divine right. In the spread of European monarchy during the Middle Ages, however, rulership was generally conveyed upon a leader who could most effectively raise and command an army. Monarchies are dynastic, with rule of the country passing to the eldest son when the king dies or retires. Monarchs had absolute rule over their subjects, severely limiting the personal and economic freedom of all citizens except for nobility and the rich upper-class. Although monarchies ruled most of Europe for centuries, the unhappiness of lower-class citizens eventually grew intolerable, causing several major revolutions. By the mid-18th century, the power of the European monarchs had been severely limited, paving the way for participatory systems of government.

@@Mysticism
People of the ancient world were fascinated and awed by the forces of nature surrounding them. Earthquakes, storms and other phenomena were generally regarded as signs from heaven. Individuals and groups arose to formulate explanations for these events, and pass the knowledge along to the tribe. The priests and priestesses of mysticism, often called oracles, claimed union with the divine through meditation and trance-like contemplation. Primitive mysticism offered mankind the first, tenuous links with the powers that shaped their world, and represented the first move toward the organized polytheistic and monotheistic religions to come.

@@Navigation
In the early days of seafaring, sailors operated solely through a process known as "piloting", in which the position and course of the ship was determined by referring to geographical landmarks. The need to stay in view of the shore severely limited the extent of sea voyages. Through experience, sailors learned to apply the science of astronomy to their profession, noting the positions and movement of particular stars. They realized that even when the shore was out of sight, they could steer by certain reliable stars. This crude, yet practical application of astronomy allowed the adventurous to sail into the unknown with a reasonable chance of finding their way. As a result, ship building technology quickly improved, producing larger, more stable ships designed for longer voyages.

@@Nuclear Fission
According to Einstein's theory of relativity, even the smallest bit of matter is equivalent to a tremendous amount of energy. For instance, two pounds of matter, if converted completely into energy, would produce energy equivalent to the explosive force of 22 megatons of high explosives. In 1939, based on German experiments that successfully split the uranium atom, physicists were able to explain the process of nuclear fission.  When a large, unstable atomic nucleus splits (fissions) the result is two or more smaller, more stable nuclei accompanied by the release of tremendous amounts of energy and lingering, deadly radioactivity. The first application of this powerful technology was in warfare. A top-secret research effort in the U.S. known as the Manhattan Project studied the fission process, and eventually produced the first atomic bombs, which were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. These relatively small bombs, the only atomic weapons ever used in a war, each produced an explosion equivalent to more than 20,000 tons of TNT. The nuclear weapons of today are capable of producing explosions thousands of times more powerful.

@@Nuclear Power
In addition to its potential for destruction, the energy released in nuclear fission was seen as a potential source of controlled power generation. By 1944, large-scale nuclear reactors were in operation for the production of plutonium, although the energy produced by these reactors was not used. Following World War II, increased efforts were turned toward the extensive use of nuclear power to produce electricity. Nuclear power plants use the radiant energy of a controlled nuclear reaction to heat water, converting it to steam to spin turbines that generate electricity. The major drawback to nuclear fission is the lack of a safe means of disposal for the waste produced by the reaction, which retains its lethal radioactivity for hundreds of years. Another hazard is the possibility of a malfunction in the reactor that could lead to a meltdown of the core. Despite massive safety precautions, human error and equipment failures can lead to devastating accidents such as the explosion at Chernobyl in 1986, in which at least 30 people were killed and thousands lost their homes and face possible long-term illness after exposure to near-lethal doses of radiation. Because of growing public concern, the development of new nuclear power plants has slowed as scientists search for viable solutions to these problems.

@@Philosophy
The term philosophy comes from a Greek term meaning "love of wisdom." In ancient Greece, literacy and an interest in the natural world were common in a burgeoning upper class. In their leisure time, these people contemplated principles of thinking and being, logic and mathematics, and the natures of reality and existence. In ancient times, the study of philosophy was indistinguishable from the study of science, and many of the theories formulated by the early philosophers became the basis for studies in the fields of astronomy, medicine, chemistry, and physics. The teachings and writings of the ancient philosophers of Greece and the Orient also, in part, laid the groundwork for many of the world's oldest organized religions.

@@Physics
Physics is the study of the many forms of matter and energy and of the way they interact with themselves and each other. A number of ancient races made observations about certain aspects of physics, such as planetary motion, but were unable to develop theories as to the reasons for these motions. Some of the earliest applications of physics were by the Greek mathematician Archemedes, who applied physics to create such devices as levers and screws. It was not until the 17th century that experimental methods and scientific measuring devices led to a true understanding of many fundamental physical laws. Early scientists such as Johannes Kepler and Sir Isaac Newton began to disprove the theories of the ancient Greek philosophers and scientifically prove their theories concerning the laws of physics. Discoveries in physics rarely have direct application, however they do provide a basic understanding of the laws governing the universe, thus forming the basis for practical advances in technology.

@@Plastics
One of the spin-offs of researching more efficient ways to refine crude oil was the invention of plastics,  organic polymer materials that retain their strength when molded into almost any shape. Starting in the 1920s, a flurry of research into the nature and fabrication of plastics resulted in widespread developments in the field, including the formulation of Plexiglas and nylon in the late 1930s. The boom in plastics research and development continued into and after World War II. Plastics were quickly adopted as cheap, sturdy substitutes for more traditional materials such as glass, rubber, and silk. It seemed that plastics were one of the most practical achievements of the Industrial Age. Despite their usefulness, plastics have proven to be an environmental hazard, since most plastics are not biodegradable,and they are therefore very difficult to dispose of. The significant pollution problem posed by plastics has been partially alleviated through the widespread implementation of recycling programs.

@@Pottery
The invention of pottery was essential to the development of agricultural societies. To get the most out of seasonal crops and domesticated animals, a tribe needed sturdy, waterproof containers in which to store and protect surplus food. The discoveries of the properties of clay, the invention of the kiln, and the potter's wheel made it possible to build such containers. The earliest examples of Western pottery date back to as early as 6500 BC. Most of the examples from this period were strictly utilitarian. Although use continued to be primarily practical, decorative pottery soon became a ritualistic and aesthetic art form in cultures all over the world. Some of the most impressive examples of artistic pottery come from the pre-Columbian cultures of South America, and from the Ming dynasty in 14th century China.

@@Railroad
The predecessors to modern railroads were wagonways, which were constructed in England starting in the 16th century. Wagonways were roads of parallel planks upon which coal wagons were pulled by horses at a greater speed than would have been possible on dirt roads. Wagonways were gradually improved by adding cross-ties and iron strips to reinforce the track. Eventually, the planks became metal rails, and evolved into the type of rails used on today's railroads by the start of the 19th century. Soon after the steam locomotive was introduced in 1829, it replaced horse-drawn wagons, giving birth to the railroad. Originally developed in Britain and the eastern United States as a method of hauling heavy mining ores and freight, railroads outshone canals in their ability to operate across any ground and in nearly any weather. When railroads started carrying passengers as well as goods, the potential for safe, fast,  inexpensive transport became clear. Railroads led to a dramatic increase in the amount of cargo,  passengers, news, and troops that could be moved quickly over great distances.

@@Recycling
Increasing world population has led to an inevitable increase in the amount of garbage produced by society. Conventional disposal methods, such as burial in a landfill, have proven inadequate to handle the growing waste problem. One solution to this problem is the reuse of discarded materials through recycling. Although scrap metals and other materials have been reused in manufacturing processes for some time, true recycling is a broad-based, household-by-household effort. The increasing pollution generated by industry and consumerism, added to the depletion of natural resources, make the re-use of materials less a concern of efficiency and more as one of necessity for the survival of the human species. Not only does the recycling of waste materials prevent the unwanted build-up of garbage, it saves energy and slows the depletion of natural resources such as trees and petroleum products.

@@Refining
When the demand for oil-based fuels for lighting and other purposes began to soar in the 19th century, scientists began searching for a way to make use of crude oil. This research led to techniques in which crude oil was broken down, or refined, into a number of different fuels, including kerosene and gasoline. As consumer demand continued to increase, commercial refineries were set up to purify crude oil. The new petroleum products produced as a result of the development and perfection of the refining process led to the use of oil-based fuels in many consumer and industrial applications. These include the use of gasoline to power automobiles, and the use of oil for heating and for the generation of electrical power.

@@The Republic
The republic is a system of government in which the citizens appoint, by popular vote, a head of state and officials to represent the views of the general public. The concept of the republic first appeared in ancient Rome, where local provinces sent elected representatives to the Senate, which governed all Roman lands. Both the head of state and the local representatives in a republic are elected; no one is granted a position by birth or divine right. Republican governments are similar in some ways to democracies, in that they offer a great deal of personal, financial, and political freedom to their citizens. The main difference between the two systems is that a true democracy allows the participation of every voting citizen in any and all political matters, whereas in a republic, the views and opinions of the people are represented by a body of elected officials. Although an effective system, personal agendas of political representatives might act to decrease the effectiveness in representing the views of the people. Due to human nature, corruption is fairly common in a republican government.

@@Robotics
The creation of machines to assist in, and increase the efficiency of, the manufacturing process gave birth to the factory system of production and started the Industrial Revolution. The invention of digital computers in the late 1940's, and their refinement over the next several decades, took factory automation one step further. Computer-controlled machines, called robots, were designed to perform repetitive or dangerous tasks more quickly than humans. Experimental robots capable of simple manipulation of objects were in operation by the late 1960's. The first robots used on an assembly line were commissioned by General Motors in the 1970's. Constant improvements in the computer field have allowed the production of incredibly versatile robots, capable of performing a wide variety of tasks under virtually any environmental condition. Robots today are widely used in manufacturing, scientific research, and space exploration.

@@Rocketry
Rockets are projectiles that are propelled by the expulsion of gases generated in a combustion chamber. The first solid-fuel rockets, invented by the Chinese in the 13th century, used a mixture similar to gunpowder for fuel. Although rockets were used in warfare to set fire to buildings and the sails of ships for nearly 500 years, it wasn't until the early 19th century that the first crude explosive rockets were used in battle. Research and design efforts by scientists such as Robert Goddard in the 20th century refined rocket design to produce faster, better controlled rockets. During World War II, this new technology was used to create the German V-2 "buzz bomb", the first true guided missile. Scientific developments since World War II have been applied to adapt the rocket for use in even more powerful and accurate weapons with incredible range. The rocket is also used in peaceful application such as the launch of satellites and the exploration of space.

@@Space Flight
Utilizing the now well-developed science of rocketry, the modern exploration of space began in October, 1957 when the Soviet Union launched Sputnik 1. This tiny satellite orbited the earth for 57 days, providing information on radiation and other phenomena in the upper atmosphere. In less than a year, the United States had also launched a satellite, Explorer 1. This started the "space race", years of competition between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. to achieve new frontiers in space exploration. Space flight advanced rapidly from the simple sub-orbital flights of the 1950's, to manned missions to Earth's moon in the late 1960's. The rapid growth of space technology led to many practical applications, such as weather and surveillance satellites, and vastly improved worldwide communications. Today, although hindered by severe government budget cuts, the exploration of space continues. Plans in the near future call for continued orbital exploration via the space shuttle program, and the eventual construction of the multi-national, manned space station "Freedom" in the early 21st century.

@@Steam Engine
The steam engine is a device that uses steam to generate power. Water, heated by burning fuel (usually coal or wood), turns to steam. The steam is contained in a chamber where it builds up pressure, causing a piston to move. The piston drives a turbine, the rotation of which produces power which can be use for such purposes as producing motion or generating electricity. The early principles of this device were understood as early as the late 17th century, but it wasn't until 1769 that Scottish engineer James Watt patented a practical design for what was to become the basis for the modern steam engine. The invention of the steam engine led to a number of landmark developments, including the steam locomotive and the earliest examples of automobiles. Steam engines remained the chief means of motive power in the transportation industry until the invention of the more powerful and compact internal combustion engine. Steam turbines are still in use today in a number of applications including the generation of electrical power.

@@Amphibious Warfare
A combined land and sea attack, usually associated with the capture of a beach head or coastal area, is known as amphibious warfare. First attempted by the ancient Persians durning the Battle of Marathon in 490 BC, successful coordination of amphibious assaults are considered to be among the most complex military operations. When ship-mounted guns were developed, naval vessels would open fire on ground forces and gun emplacements while merchant ships were used to land troops and supplies. The first modern amphibious assault took place at Gallipoli during World War I. Poorly planned and executed, this assault failed, but served as an example of the need for perfect coordination of forces in this type of attack. As battlefield communications improved, and the range of ship-mounted weapons increased, amphibious warfare became increasingly successful, and played a vital role in World War II. Today, amphibious operations are augmented by fast, armored landing vehicles; hovercraft that are capable of moving troops to and across the beach; and airborne assistance from planes and helicopters.

@@Combined Arms
Advanced flight technology, combined with the principles of amphibious warfare and mobile warfare, represent the potential for a devastating attack force. Combined air, sea, and ground assaults played a vital role in World War II. The Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944 represented such an attack. Bombers and fighters were deployed over the target area to claim the skies, while naval vessels sat off the coast and bombarded the beach head. Transports then landed troops and equipment on the beach to begin a ground assault. Modern advances make today's combined assaults even more effective. Naval vessels and stealth aircraft equipped with cruise missiles and smart bombs soften enemy resistance before a ground assault. Helicopters drop and retrieve soldiers behind enemy lines in places not accessible to fixed-wing aircraft. Powerful armored tanks, such as the M1, can be quickly deployed, moving at speeds up to 60 miles per hour. Finally, the combined assault is coordinated through a network of sophisticated communication, targeting, and detection devices, allowing more precise deployment of forces than previously possible in history.

@@Economics
The ideas of supply and demand, and philosophies concerning trade and the production and consumption of goods and services, are concepts that have existed since the dawn of mankind. As societies became more complex, however, people began to study these abstract concepts in a more formal way. The first recorded study of economics as a science, rather than a philosophical or political concept, was the book "The Wealth of Nations" by Scottish economist Adam Smith. This book represents the first attempt to fully analyze sources of income and the distribution of wealth. Smith's analysis of economics served as a guide by which many of the governmental economic policies of the present day were formed.

@@Environmentalism
For centuries, human society has taken the gifts of nature for granted. As civilization grew, humans spread out across the face of the planet, taking what they needed from the land and producing more and more waste materials with little regard for the future. In the late 1960's, a growing number of people became concerned about the growing problems of pollution and the destruction of natural habitats. This movement led to the formation of groups like the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA's aim is to reduce all types of pollution. To this end, the agency has imposed strict laws and guidelines concerning the disposal of hazardous materials, set clean water standards, and studied more effective techniques of solid waste disposal. The primary goal of the environmental movement as a whole is to make sure that the environment is safe and intact for future generations to enjoy.

@@Espionage
As far back as 500 BC, the Chinese military strategist Sun Tzu stressed the importance of the gathering of covert information about one's enemy. Although every world government has strict laws and penalties to deal with spies, covert intelligence is an important political, technological, and military commodity. During times of war, covert operatives provide important information about enemy troop movements and weapons technology. Spies may also be called upon to perform acts of sabotage in order to delay or divert the enemy. In peacetime, organizations such as the CIA use operatives to keep track of potential political situations abroad. Spying is not limited to politics and war; industrial spies are often used to gain information about rival companies.

@@Fundamentalism
Fundamentalism is a governing system whose laws and doctrines are rooted in the extremist and controversial views of religion. Fundamentalists believe in the absolute truth and infallibility of their religion, accepting nothing short of a literal interpretation of the scriptures of their faith. Their views are sometimes so radical as to put them at odds with even the most devout traditionalists of the religion in question. Fundamentalist movements have appeared from time to time throughout the world, including a widespread movement of Christian fundamentalism in the U.S. in the early 20th century. In some cases, most notably in areas of the Middle East, these movements are so widespread that entire nations fall under Fundamentalist rule. Such governments, backed by a fanatical military force, can be a serious threat to any country that opposes their radical views.

@@Guerrilla Warfare
In extreme situations, usually spawned by an oppressive or militaristic system of government, small groups of citizens have been known to form armed factions. In many cases, these splinter groups lack the numbers, finances, and armament to start a full-scale revolution. Instead, they adopt a practice of undermining governmental authority through covert military operations. These operations usually take the form of hit-and-run raids, where rebel soldiers launch a surprise attack on an enemy target, then disappear into hiding, only to strike again at some other time and place. Such tactics, known as guerrilla warfare, seldom have any lasting effect individually. However, over many years, guerrilla factions can become a serious threat to governmental authority if the rebels cannot be caught and suppressed. Tactics of this sort were used to great effect by the partisan forces in Nazi-occupied Europe during World War II.

@@The Laser
Laser is an acronym for "Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation". Lasers produce an amplified, coherent beam of light by using photons to energize or excite the electrons in the beam. The principles for the underlying theory of the stimulated emission of light was first proposed by Einstein in 1917. The first helium-neon gas laser was built in 1961. Years of research and development have led to a wide variety of laser applications in many different fields. Lasers can be used for everything from the precision cutting of almost any material and performing micro-surgery to reading digital data and music information off of a compact disc. The military currently uses lasers for weapons targeting systems, and it has been proposed that laser technology could be used to defend against an enemy missile attack.

@@Leadership
Through the Middle Ages, military forces were only assembled as needed, and continued to serve until the current conflict had ended. Though certain leaders had proven to be adept and occasionally brilliant in their methods, the short periods for which they served made their fame short-lived. As regular armies became more prevalent, military leaders had the opportunity to distinguish themselves through the formulation of brilliant military tactics. The tactics of leaders such as these would be studied by successive generations, and modified to fit new situations up to and including the present day.

@@Machine Tools
One of the most important steps in the move toward industrialization was the ability to precisely shape or "machine" solid metal into a desired form. Through mechanical, chemical, and other means, machine tools mold and shape raw materials into precision parts for complex machinery. The first machine tool, a horizontal boring device, was produced in the late 1700's. The development of measuring devices accurate to within a millionth of an inch allowed for the mass production of items with interchangeable parts. The technology of the 20th century has produced computer-controlled machine tools that can be adapted to a wide variety of applications. The speed and accuracy of these machines allows for the economical mass production of extremely complex products.

@@Miniaturization
Early radios and other electronic devices relied on vacuum tube technology. Because the tubes took up a great deal of space, the devices that utilized them tended to be very bulky and cumbersome. In the late 1940's, the development of the transistor provided a compact alternative to vacuum tubes. Transistors were capable of achieving the same level of power amplification achieved by tubes while taking up much less space, and using only a fraction of the power. Starting in the 1960's, the integrated circuit provided still another level of miniaturization. An integrated circuit the size of a transistor could perform the function of 20 transistors. Today, the microprocessor, a modern refinement of the original integrated circuits, can incorporate the functions of several complete printed circuit boards into a single, low-power consumption chip less than two inches square, allowing for the construction of hand-held computers with more computing power than the huge mainframes used in the 70's and 80's.

@@Mobile Warfare
The idea of using heavy weapons on the battlefield dates back to the 15th century when heavy cannons were mounted on wheels and towed into battle by horses. This first use of mobile artillery, devastatingly effective in its time, pales in comparison to the tactics used in 20th century armored warfare. Tanks were first used during World War I. A successful assault utilizing 400 tanks in November 1917, resulting in the capture of 8000 enemy troops and 100 guns near Cambrai, paved the way for a significant shift in battlefield tactics. During World War II, armored vehicles were used extensively throughout Europe and Africa by both Allied and Axis powers. The might and mobility of an armored assault was more than a match for countries who lacked proper defenses against such an attack. Armored warfare still plays an important role in battlefield tactics. This was proven in the Persian Gulf war, where the M1 Abrams tank proved to be a vital component of the ground assault force in Kuwait.

@@Monotheism
Monotheism is the belief that there is only one God. Perhaps the oldest monotheistic religion is Judaism. The original Israelites were polytheistic in a sense, since they did not deny the existence of other gods in addition to their own. However, after being exiled to Babylonia in 586 BC, the Judeans turned to a truly monotheistic religion, where the God of Israel was seen as the universal God ruling the destiny of all nations. The scriptures of Judaism became part of the teachings of the two most widespread monotheistic religions, Christianity and Islam. More developed than earlier polytheistic beliefs, monotheistic religions tend to encompass and structure the entire lifestyles of the people who practice them.

@@Future Technology
Since the dawn of mankind, human needs and desires have combined to produce ideas and inventions that make life easier and more productive. New technological breakthroughs have become an almost daily occurrence in the modern era, and new ideas will continue to drive human knowledge to higher and higher levels well into the future.

@@Polytheism
Polytheism is the belief that the world and the environment is ruled or controlled by a number of different gods or divinities. Many ancient religions were polytheistic, notably those of the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Norse, and the Romans. Often, polytheistic religions have different gods for each force of nature and earthly phenomenon; for instance: a sun god, a moon god, a god of thunder, a god of the forests, and so forth. The reason for such diversity in divine beings probably stems from ancient civilizations attempting to find explanations for natural events they could not understand. Although some isolated examples still exist today, most polytheistic religions have either died out or evolved into monotheism.

@@Radio
Prior to Gugliemo Marconi's invention of the radio in 1896, long-distance communication was carried out either by mail or over miles of cable via telegraph. Marconi's first demonstration of the radio telegraph transmitted a message just over one mile without the use of wires. Continued improvements increased transmission range to over 200 miles by early 1901, and by the end of the year a single letter ("A") had been transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean. By 1905, many ships were equipped with radio telegraphs for ship-to-ship and ship-to-land communications, and by 1915 the invention of the three-element vacuum tube, or triode, made it possible to regularly transmit voice messages over the airwaves. Throughout the years, radio has been refined not only for communication, but for detection and ranging (Radar) and astronomy.

@@Refrigeration
What do you get when you cross white picket fences, swimming pools, and 2.5 kids with high density city living?  An impossibility?  Or an urban design challenge?  

Through the efficient use of limited space, urban design makes small spaces just as pleasant as large ones and increases the capacity of existing cities and preserving farmland.  This way there's grain to grow the cake and fancy French restaurants to eat it in.

@@Sanitation
The increased waste produced by growing populations over time eventually led to potential health hazards. It then became necessary to come up with systems to dispose of garbage and human waste in a sanitary manner. Plumbing systems designed to remove waste water from dwellings and public buildings became commonplace, as did sewage plants which treated the wastewater before it was dumped into local waterways. Landfills were established, and garbage was collected for sanitary disposal in dumps and landfills a safe distance from the general population. These measures led to a healthier environment, and allowed for further population growth.

@@Seafaring
As empires grew and trade expanded to new areas, travel by sea became increasingly important to the civilizations of the world. Experienced sailors passed down their lore and techniques to new generations who sailed to increasingly distant lands. Originally, these long voyages were trade-oriented. But the ability to travel great distances led to a new breed of adventurers whose goal was primarily one of exploration. The Vikings were some of the earliest and most successful explorers in history. Their knowledge of the sea and experience with long ocean voyages allowed explorers such as Leif Ericson to successfully cross the Atlantic and land in the Americas more than 500 years before Columbus. The pioneering spirit of these early ocean travelers formed the basis for the seafaring traditions of generations to come.

@@Stealth
It has long been recognized that in warfare, the best advantage available is surprise. If one can approach an enemy undetected, the attack has a better chance of being successful. The widespread use of radar starting in World War II greatly decreased the possibility of surprise for an airborne assault. Planes could be detected from miles away, giving the enemy a chance to prepare for the attack. Over the years, the military has employed many different approaches to solve this problem. The most recent development is "Stealth" technology. Stealth planes are painted with radar-absorbing paint, and designed in such a way as to minimize the number of angular surfaces from which an enemy can bounce a radar signal. The engines are also hooded to reduce the plane's heat signature. The result is an aircraft capable of approaching an enemy target, launching an attack, and returning to base with little chance of detection. The F-117A Stealth Fighter was used with great effectiveness by US forces in the Persian Gulf War in 1991.

@@Tactics
The science of the deployment of military forces to accomplish a short-range goal or objective is known as tactics. In unique or difficult situations, the maneuvers and methods of attack must be chosen wisely to give ones troops the maximum possible advantage over the enemy by taking advantage of the enemy's weaknesses. The successful tactics of military commanders are studied by their successors for possible modification and use under current conditions. Although tactics that work well in certain situations may not always be successful when used again, proven military tactics have worked well in many different battle situations throughout history. The vast amount of advanced equipment and resources available in modern warfare make the proper tactical coordination of a campaign vital, but difficult to achieve with total success.

@@Theology
Theology is the study of God and religious truth. Theologians take a more or less scientific approach to questions of religion, deeply studying the underlying meaning of scriptures and religious teachings rather than "taking them on faith". Theological seminaries teach courses of study in theology to prepare people as priests and clergymen. Many of the earliest colleges of the western world were originally established for this purpose. Theological study helped to remove some of the superstitions that had surrounded religion for so long, and brought religious study into a more enlightened age.

@@Warrior Code
The samurai of feudal Japan lived by a doctrine known as "Bushido", or "the way of the warrior". This code of behavior stressed such virtues as loyalty, courage, and politeness. The honor of the warrior could only be maintained if the rules of the code were followed. A similar code of behavior known as chivalry was later developed under the feudal system in medieval Europe. Although the strict adherence to both Bushido and chivalry were abandoned along with the feudal system in the 1800's, certain principals of discipline and behavior inherent in these systems can still be found in the military today.

@@Wheel
The invention of the wheel represented a major turning point in human civilization. The first wheels, disks carved from solid wood, may have been built as early as 3500 BC. The earliest use of this device was the potter's wheel, used to spin and shape clay pottery. It was not long before the true potential of the wheel was discovered, and wheeled carts soon replaced the sledge as a means of transportation. Rapid developments, such as wheels consisting of a ring with radial spokes, made the wheel even more practical by reducing its weight. By using the wheel, mankind gained the ability to work more efficiently and travel more quickly. Besides its use in transportation, the wheel went on to become the basic principle behind almost every mechanical device.

@@Writing
The development of writing is considered one of the most important advances of civilization. The earliest forms of writing were simple symbols and marks, used to keep accounts and inventories. Some cultures developed pictographic symbols to tell stories and record events. Eventually, complete systems of writing were developed, capable of conveying any thought that could be expressed orally. At this point, scribes replaced the oral historian as the chief keepers of records. Writing allowed the presentation of information in a form that could be reliably transmitted from person to person and made it possible for ideas, history, and knowledge to be stored permanently and passed between cultures more reliably than through oral recitation.

@@Gunpowder
Gunpowder is a chemical mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal. When ignited, it burns rapidly and explodes if contained to any degree. Gunpowder is believed to have been developed by the Chinese, who used it in fireworks as early as the 9th century, but it did not reach Europe until the 14th century. Europeans immediately saw the potential of this substance, and manufactured it for use in weapons as early as 1334. The discovery of gunpowder led to the invention of firearms, such as the musket, which led to the replacement of archers in most armies of the world by the late 1500s. Gunpowder marked one of the major technological turning points in military history, significantly changing the way wars were fought.

@@Horseback Riding
The horse was first domesticated for transportation and warfare by tribesmen on the Asian steppes. These tribesmen used their superior mobility and speed to overwhelm the proto-civilizations just rising in southeast Europe and the Middle East. In approximately 2000 BC, domestic horses were introduced into Babylonia. Within the next several centuries, horses had spread throughout much of Europe and northern Africa. It was not long before nearly every civilization had put horses to work as field animals and as a means of transportation. Horses also went on to play an important role in the military conflicts of nearly every civilization in the world, both as mounts for horsemen and cavalry, and as draft animals for pulling war chariots and heavy weapons into battle.

@@Industrialization
Industrialization involves the use of machines to dramatically increase productivity. Production of goods became concentrated in factories, where the combination of specialization of labor and automation reduced labor costs and, ultimately, the cost of the final manufactured product to the consumers.  Industrialization revolutionized living standards, both positively and negatively. The rapid growth of production industries and the reduced cost of production has led to the prosperity of some of the richest families in history. Industrialization has also led to the creation of a blue collar working class. In newly industrialized nations, these workers, skilled only in their chosen trade, were often underpaid and forced to endure abominable working conditions.

@@Invention
The contrivance of a previously unknown device, method, or process which can, in turn, be used to accomplish an objective in a ways thought to be impossible, is known as invention. Essentially, inventiveness is the ability to take one or more newly discovered concepts and find a way to put them to practical use. The earliest inventions of mankind date back to ancient stone and metal tools used for hunting, digging, and other everyday tasks. After writing allowed the ideas of various civilizations to be exchanged and studied, mankind's inventions became increasingly more useful and innovative. Most inventions are geared toward improving or simplifying human existence in some way. Often, inventions themselves make it possible to make new discoveries, which then go on to inspire better and more innovative inventions.

@@Iron Working
Some examples of iron ornamentation date back to 4000 BC, but the use of iron for tools, weapons, and other practical purposes did not become common until much later. Prior to this time, bronze was the most widely used metal for such purposes. Although the term "Iron Age" denotes a period of time starting around 1000 BC, iron replaced bronze as the metal of choice at different times in different places. Iron is more common than both copper and tin, the component metals of bronze, but iron is seldom found in a free state; it is most commonly found mixed with other minerals and elements. In order to be used, the iron must be separated from the ore. Once this technique was developed, and forges hot enough to melt the iron were developed, iron working became commonplace. Worked iron was harder, less brittle, and could hold a much sharper edge than bronze. Iron has remained an important metal throughout history, and is one of the major components in the production of steel.

@@Steel
The iron alloys produced up until about the 14th century were made by heating a mixture of iron ore and charcoal in a forge, then pounding the molten metal to drive out the impurities or "slag". Occasionally, the iron mixture would absorb more carbon, creating steel rather than wrought iron. Because steel proved to be less brittle and more resistant to corrosion than iron, techniques were developed to produce steel. This was done by blowing a coal derivative called coke through molten iron. Most modern steel making utilizes the "blast furnace", developed by Henry Bessemer in 1855, to accomplish this task on a large-scale basis. The strength and other qualities of steel make it the material of choice for warships, planes, and many other vehicles.

@@Superconductor
Any material through which an electrical current can pass with relatively little resistance is known as a conductor. When an electric current passes through most conductors, part of that current is lost due to resistance, which varies depending on the conducting material and the ambient temperature. Some conductors, when cooled to temperatures near absolute zero, lose all resistance to current. These are known as superconductors. Because no energy is lost to resistance, superconductors can lead to a wide variety of practical uses. These include super-fast computers, powerful electromagnetic fields strong enough to contain fusion reactions, and the completely efficient generation and transmission of electrical power. Although the extremely low temperatures necessary to produce superconductivity have limited its uses thus far, recent developments hint that some unusual materials may be superconductive even at room temperatures. The isolation and large-scale production of these materials could lead to a new revolution in the field of electronics.

@@Theory of Gravity
In the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton developed the law of universal gravitation. This law recognized that every mass in the universe exerts an attraction on every other mass. Newton postulated that gravity was a universal force that affected all matter. Newton's theory served to explain the forces of attraction between the Earth and nearby objects, as well as the forces that affect the motion of planets and other astronomical bodies. In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity led to a major reinterpretation and clarification of Newton's theory of gravity. Scientists now believe that gravity affects energy as well as matter, and that gravity is actually a fundamental warping of the fabric of space-time. Some theorize that the force of this warping is transmitted by as-yet-unobserved particles called gravitons.

@@Trade
One of the oldest and most widespread social institutions is the exchange of goods, or trade. Most ancient trade consisted of barter, where two traders would exchange goods with one another. The widespread practice of trade allowed civilizations to exchange raw materials and goods which they had in abundance or could easily produce, for items that were rare or nonexistent in their geographic region. The introduction of regulated currency that could be exchanged for items resulted in easier, more convenient trade. Merchants soon roamed the world, connecting different lands with webs of economic interdependence. In addition to goods and profits, traders also brought back tales and technology from these foreign lands. Well-traveled traders like Marco Polo were among the most learned sources on the cultures and traditions of foreign lands.

@@The University
Institutes of higher learning, such as the Academy of Plato in Athens which taught advanced philosophical principles, existed in the ancient world. It was not until the 12th century, however, that the model for the modern university system was born. In the Middle Ages, some royal governments and ecclesiastical organizations founded exclusive schools dedicated to training young men in specific professions. At that time, each university specialized in a single topic like law, theology, music, or medicine. Through the centuries, universities diversified to include a number of different fields of study. Modern universities consists of several faculties, or colleges, each of which has a specific curriculum. In addition to their roles as learning institutions, universities have, since their inception, acted as centers for scientific research and advancement.

@IMPROVEMENT_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the IMPROV.PDE text file in the original
;Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;
; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,
; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that
; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Palace will be the 16'th (remember,
; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.
; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.
; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.
;
@@IMPROVEMENT_INDEX
-1,			; Nothing
15,			; Palace
2,			; Barracks
8,			; Granary
22,			; Temple
12,			; MarketPlace
10,			; Library
6,			; Courthouse
4,			; City Walls
0,			; Aqueduct
1,			; Bank
3,			; Cathedral
23,			; University
13,			; Mass Transit
5,			; Colosseum
7,			; Factory
11,			; Manufacturing Plant
18,			; SDI Defense
17,			; Recycling Center
16,			; Power Plant
9,			; Hydro Plant
14,			; Nuclear Plant
34,			; Stock Exchange
32,			; Sewer System
35,			; Supermarket
36,			; Superhighways
30,			; Research Lab
31,			; SAM Missile Battery
26,			; Coastal Fortress
33,			; Solar Plant
37,			; Harbor
27,			; Offshore Platform
24,			; Airport
28,			; Police Station
29,			; Port Facility
21,			; SS Structural
19,			; SS Component
20,			; SS Module
25,			; (Capitalization)
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Aqueduct
A major obstacle to population growth and expansion in early cities was the scarcity of water. In many cases, the solution to this problem was an aqueduct. Aqueducts were large, elevated stone "canals" through which water from nearby hills and mountains was channeled into the city. Aqueducts allowed cities to grow much larger by significantly increasing the amount of available water. At the same time aqueducts reduced the chance of contracting water-borne diseases, by reducing the dependence on stagnant ponds and wells as water sources. Aqueducts also allowed cities to be built in normally inhospitable environments, such as deserts, by providing an outside water source. Modern day Los Angeles, for example, obtains its water supply from the Colorado River, through a system of aqueducts over 200 miles long.

@@Bank
A highly developed banking system is one of the cornerstones of an advanced civilization. Banks lend money to individuals or groups, providing capital for industrial and real estate development. Banks also contribute to the economic growth of a city or region by stimulating the development of production facilities. Individual citizens can also benefit by investing their own surplus money in the bank and  earning interest on it.

@@Barracks
Warfare has been a recurring phenomenon throughout the history of mankind, and it continues to plague the world today. Although war is not a desirable situation, it is important that even the most peaceful of societies be prepared for the possibility of war. When warring nations are closely matched in technology and manpower, battles are usually won by the army with the best training. Military schools and academies exist all over the world, established for the purpose of training military personnel in the latest methods, tactics, and technology. Men and women who graduate from such facilities possess higher than average command and military and technological skills, making them more effective in combat situations.

@@Cathedral
Throughout the Dark Ages that followed the fall of the Roman Empire, the Christian Church was a major influence in the revival of European civilization. In recognition of the expanding influence of the church, great cathedrals were built in the largest towns and cities, to act as centers of religious study and worship. In addition to their religious significance, cathedrals acted as the center of social and cultural activity in the town. They brought great pride, stability, and tradition to the citizens of the community.

@@City Walls
Before the establishment of centralized governments capable of supporting strong, national armies, individual cities were left to fend for themselves when it came to defense. As a result, many cities constructed city walls to protect against raiders and bandits. City walls represented a major investment in both time and materials, requiring years to complete and constant repairs to maintain their strength and integrity. However, these walls turned the city into a fortress capable of withstanding all but the most determined attack.

@@Colosseum
The original colosseum provided entertainment for the common people of Roman society by presenting them with spectacles and events as a temporary escape from day-to-day life. This concept has been revived in the 20th Century. Modern-day stadiums and civic centers provide an arena for entertainment ranging from concerts to professional sporting events. Although the violent spectacle of gladiatorial combat is a thing of the past, today's colosseums still provide entertainment and diversion for the masses.

@@Courthouse
As kingdoms and empires expanded, it became increasingly difficult for the rulers to maintain control over the more distant regions of their realm. To ensure that the far-flung cities of the empire contributed their expected share of duties and taxes to the government, local magistrates and courts were established. In the courthouse, the ruler's representatives listened to the grievances of the people and defined and enforced the laws that governed social interaction. This reduced crime, and thereby kept the local population productive.

@@Factory
Early examples of factory-like production, where a number of individuals work cooperatively to produce goods for sale or trade, can be found as far back as ancient Greece and Rome. Modern factories, however, evolved from the concept of specialized labor, where each worker performed a single step in the overall production of an item. This specialization allows factories to increase the speed and efficiency of the manufacturing process, far surpassing earlier means of production. The development of the factory system as a means of production played a key role in the Industrial Revolution.

@@Granary
Early humans were nomadic, settling in specific regions only for brief periods of time. When the food supply was exhausted in one area, the nomads would move on to search for more. Cities became possible only when the development of agriculture made the supply of food more abundant and dependable. However, cities still needed a way to keep the food supply stable throughout all four seasons. To do so, the citizens had to come up with a way to store seasonal crops for later use. The Granary was designed for the storage and protection of surplus food. Food storage technology meant that a smaller percentage of the population could produce and store enough food for everyone, allowing the remainder to pursue other jobs and activities.

@@Hydro Plant
One alternative to power generation utilizing coal or petroleum fuels is the hydroelectric power plant. This facility utilizes the energy of rapidly moving water to turn the turbines of its generators and produce electricity. In locations where a source of moving water is available, hydro plants offer a clean, safe alternative to coal, petroleum, and nuclear power generation. However, hydro plants have their own set of environmental dangers. The disruption of a river's normal flow and the massive flooding of the land behind the facility's dam can destroy the habitat of the wildlife inhabiting the river basin.

@@Library
The development of writing meant that the accumulated knowledge of a society could be written down and stored rather than memorized and passed along by word of mouth. The accumulated written material was stored in a library. The libraries of the ancient world, especially those at Alexandria and Pergamum, became leading centers of science and scholarship. The librarians actively collected the books of the world, accelerating the spread of knowledge.

@@Manufacturing Plant
Manufacturing plants are large industrial complexes that produce goods of all types, although they are generally used to produce durable consumer goods such as automobiles. Essentially, a manufacturing plant is a large, sophisticated factory that employs specialization of labor, complex machinery, and assembly lines to gain efficiency and economies of scale. This combination of manpower and automation increases productivity and reduces production costs.

@@Marketplace
As cities grew and prospered, trade between the farmers, artisans, and craftsmen who lived in the vicinity contributed to the economic health of the city. It soon became apparent that the best way for conducting trade within the city was to have a central location, or marketplace, where the people offering goods and services, or seeking them, could meet and conduct business. As a city's marketplace grew larger and more active, the economic vitality of the city grew as well.

@@Mass Transit
Within a few decades of the invention of the automobile, the horse-drawn carriage disappeared from city streets. Along with all the advantages offered by the automobile, this new means of transportation quickly became a significant source of air pollution. As larger cities became more crowded, the number of cars increased, making travel difficult and adding to the pollution problem as automobile traffic clogged the streets. The development of mass transit systems, including busses, trolleys, subways, and light rail, led to a reduction in traffic and, as a result, a reduction in air pollution.

@@Nuclear Power Plant
Nuclear power plants utilize radioactive materials and the process of nuclear fission to generate the heat and steam needed to run electrical generators and produce electricity. Because nuclear power doesn't cause the air pollution associated with the burning of coal or petroleum products, this means of generating power is considered a viable alternative energy source. However, the toxic nature of the byproducts produced by the fission process creates serious problems of its own. No method of safely disposing of this toxic waste has been found, and the volatile nature of the fission reaction can lead to a meltdown of the reactor core if the reaction is not properly controlled. Because of these problems, the future of nuclear power is uncertain.
 
@@Palace
When populations began to organize their communities into cities, their governments became more structured and formalized. At an early stage, the ruler of the city established headquarters from which the business of running the city was conducted. In many cases, these buildings also served as the living quarters of the ruler. In wealthy cities, these facilities often expanded into immense, sprawling palaces. These richly adorned, imposing buildings were a source of civic pride, and helped to reinforce the aura of power surrounding the ruler.

@@Power Plant
Power plants burn coal and other fossil fuels to produce the heat and steam necessary to run generators that produce electrical power. When electricity became widely and cheaply available, it meant that industries could convert from steam to electrical power to run their machinery. One central power plant could supply the electrical needs of a relatively large geographic area. However, increasing demands for electricity, by both consumer and commercial customers, led to a rise in the number of power plants. This, in turn, led to problems with air pollution. As more plants went on line, more fossil fuels were burned to generate power. Because modern society depends so heavily on electricity, researchers are constantly searching for alternate forms of energy to satisfy ever-increasing demands.

@@Recycling Center
The continual growth in city populations leads to an inevitable increase in garbage. Eventually, existing landfills and garbage dumps are  filled, forcing new dumping sites to be established. This leads to the gradual but steady destruction of the local environment. To reverse this problem, many areas have established recycling centers, where much of the garbage is sorted and reduced to reusable components through various means. These components are then used to manufacture new products. In this way, much of the trash produced is turned into raw materials for production, rather than contributing to the ever-increasing pollution problem.

@@SDI Defense
Historically, research in the area of warfare has seen the development of powerful new weapons closely followed by the development of defenses to counteract the weapons' destructive power. The development of nuclear weapons seemed to be the exception to this rule: for the first time, mankind had created a weapon to which there was apparently no effective defense. SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative), however, could be the answer to this problem. Using laser-equipped orbital satellites or ground-launched ABMs (Anti-Ballistic Missiles) to intercept and destroy enemy nuclear missiles in mid-air, the SDI Defense offers the first hope of negating the threat posed by nuclear missiles.

@@Spaceship Component
Spaceship components provide the motive power of a spaceship. There are two types: propulsion and fuel. Propulsion components are the spaceship engines, and each fuel component provides enough fuel to run one engine. Every propulsion component requires a fuel component in order to function. At minimum, a spaceship requires one of each type of component. The more engines the spaceship possesses, the faster it  will arrive at its destination.

@@Spaceship Module
Modules are the central components of a spaceship. There are three types: habitation, life support, and solar panels. Each habitation module provides living space for 10,000 colonists. Each life support module provides enough food, water, and other basic requirements to support the colonists in one habitation module. Both habitation and life support modules require power in order to operate, and each solar panel module provides enough energy to run two other modules. At minimum, every spaceship requires one of each type of module in order to be successful in its mission.

@@Spaceship Structural
The structural parts of a spaceship are the frame to which all other parts of the spaceship are attached. All spaceship components and modules must be connected to a structural section in order to function. Components and modules not connected to the frame are outlined in red on the spaceship display. 

@@Temple
In ancient times, almost every city had a temple dedicated to the city's patron god. Many cities also had temples dedicated to other gods as well. In modern times temples are thought of as places of worship, like churches and cathedrals. Ancient societies, however, considered temples to be the local dwelling place for the god or goddess to whom they were dedicated. The faithful citizens brought gifts of food, rare metals, and spices to the temple as a sign of homage and respect. The presence of a temple in the city  had a comforting effect on the population, and wise rulers often constructed one as soon as the city began to grow.

@@University
Universities are institutions of higher learning. Early universities, established in the Middle Ages, were usually built in cities that had a large or important cathedral. Studies at these institutions focused on matters concerning the church. The curricula quickly expanded to include classical art, literature, and languages. Modern universities provide the opportunity to study a wide array of subjects. They have also become centers for research into many fields, serving as the source of major advances in computers, medicine, physics, and a variety of other subjects.

@@Airport
Since the middle of the 20th century, the airplane has been one of the chief means of long-distance transport in the world. Nearly every major metropolitan area today has at least one airport, with facilities to handle passengers and ticketing, as well as facilities for refueling and repairing the aircraft that land there. Beginning in the 1940's, the growing role of airplanes as combat vehicles led to the widespread construction of military air bases. Nearly 400 of these facilities in the U.S. alone act as bases and maintenance facilities for aircraft assigned to all branches of the military.

@@Capitalization
In the business world, companies often need large amounts of cash in order to meet expenses, update facilities, or expand their operations. When there are insufficient funds available to fulfill these needs, these corporations often resort to capitalization in order to raise money. This process involves the sale of a portion of the company's liquid assets. Liquid assets are assets that can be easily converted into cash. These can include surplus raw materials and finished goods, as well as stocks and bonds. The sale of these assets provides the infusion of money needed to meet the company's current needs.

@@Coastal Fortress
The construction of defensive structures such as city walls and fortified castles dates back to ancient times. City walls were designed primarily to repel an attack launched by ground-based forces, and they performed adequately in such a situation. However, coastal cities were also vulnerable to attack from sea bombardments, since even a city wall left sea ports relatively unprotected. The best way to protect the port was to keep the enemy out of range of the city. This was accomplished by constructing fortresses to cover the approach to the city. These coastal fortresses, built at the mouth of the city's harbor or on barrier islands, would hold enemy vessels at bay, turning away or thinning out the attacking force and minimizing damage to the city's port.

@@Offshore Platform
Mankind's dependence on wood and coal as a main source of fuel ended when the first commercial oil well went into production in Pennsylvania in 1859. Crude oil could be refined into many different byproducts, and soon replaced wood and coal in many parts of the world. The growing dependence on oil caused the petroleum industry to grow rapidly and wells were drilled all over the world. Most wells were initially drilled on land, but after World War II it was found that many of the largest oil deposits could be found below the sea floor. Shallow water drilling from platforms supported by pylons resting on the seabed proved very successful. Today, large floating platforms can drill for oil at water depths of more than 3300 feet.

@@Police Stations
The concept of a police force operating independently of the military goes back to the Praetorian Guard of ancient Rome. In the Middle Ages, noblemen protected their estates by appointing constables to enforce the law and to arrest and guard criminals, but the first modern, organized police force was the London Metropolitan Police. Established in 1829, this organization became the model for law enforcement organizations in the United States and many other industrialized nations around the world. The presence of a police force serves to uphold the laws of society, and to control civil unrest. A strong, visible police force strengthens confidence of the community by keeping the citizens safe.

@@Port Facilities
Seagoing vessels have been used for both commercial transport and military purposes for thousands of years. Cities built on rivers and on the coasts of seas and oceans built facilities to receive cargo and to house military vessels stationed in the area. Many of the larger cities built large port facilities that included shipyards for the construction of new vessels, large warehouse and docking facilities, and dry-docks for the repair of damaged vessels. Heavily damaged ships can be repaired much more quickly when such facilities are available.

@@Research Lab
Historically, libraries and universities have acted as the primary centers of research for new ideas and technologies. The growth of private industry in the modern age has also given birth to hundreds of privately-owned research facilities. These private laboratories, usually dedicated to research in a single field related to their founding company, have made tremendous advances in many fields including physics, biology, chemistry, and medicine. The growth of privately-funded  research has vastly increased the speed at which mankind achieves new advances in science and technology.

@@SAM Missile Battery
The use of airplanes in warfare began in earnest during World War I. By the end of World War II, the use of fighter aircraft and bombers was commonplace and the importance of air warfare continued to grow, as did the importance of effective anti-aircraft defenses. During the 1950's, the refinement of rocket technology allowed for the construction of compact missiles which were used to deliver explosive warheads to their targets swiftly and accurately. Batteries of surface-to-air missiles, or SAMs, were built to protect cities and ground installations against airborne attacks. The long range and high accuracy of SAM batteries provided a much more effective defense than the anti-aircraft guns of World War II.

@@Sewer System
One of the byproducts of large urban centers is a vast amount of human waste. As the city continues to grow, steps need to be taken to move the sewage away from inhabited areas and "treat" it so that it does not become a health hazard to humans or harm the local ecosystem. Sewer systems carry wastewater to treatment plants where the raw sewage is broken down through filtration and chemical processes to remove solids and harmful bacteria. The treated byproduct is then released into rivers and other waterways, where it is eventually washed safely into the ocean.

@@Solar Power Plant
One of the greatest natural sources of energy available on Earth is the sun. Solar energy can be converted directly into electrical power without the need for mechanical generators through the use of photoelectric cells. Alternatively, large solar collectors known as heliostats can be used to focus solar energy into a water boiler, generating steam to run conventional electrical turbines. Unfortunately, at our current level of technology, both of these systems are prohibitively expensive to construct. However, because of  the dwindling supply of fossil fuels and increasing concern over the pollution produced by conventional and nuclear power plants, scientists are constantly working on a viable way to harness the clean and endless supply of energy provided by our sun.

@@Stock Exchange
In a free market economy, corporations often raise operating and development capital by selling "shares" in the corporation to private investors. These shares, which allow investors to share in the company's profits, were originally sold by brokers and privately hired auctioneers. Early European stock exchanges, such as the Paris Bourse, allowed anyone to buy and sell stock. However, it was quickly discovered that a formalized system was necessary in order to enforce transactions. Thereafter, membership in the exchange was required in order to buy and sell. The first formal stock exchange in the U.S. was established in 1791 in Philadelphia, and the New York Stock Exchange was established a year later. Today, stock exchanges are located in many major cities and commercial centers around the world. Private investment in corporations is vital to capitalistic economies, allowing corporations to grow more quickly than would otherwise be possible. The profits and new jobs created as a result improve the economy as a whole.

@@Supermarket
Supermarkets are large, self-service retail stores that sell a wide variety of food items and household goods  to the general public. The first true supermarket, King Kullen, was established in 1930 in the borough of Queens, New York City, by Michael Cullen. Improved storage techniques and refrigeration allowed supermarkets to stock and sell perishable foods in large quantities, reducing the price to the consumer. The combination of ready availability and low prices made the supermarket an instant success in the U.S. during the years of the Great Depression.  The supermarket continues to grow in popularity in countries around the world.

@@Superhighway
Early in his career, President Eisenhower traveled by road, from coast to coast, across the United States. This trip, which took nearly a month because of the poor system of roads, convinced him that it was necessary to make all areas of the country easily accessible. Not only were these improvements important to the growing number of people traveling by automobile, they could prove invaluable for the movement of troops and military equipment should the need arise. In 1956, Eisenhower established a federal-aid program known as the Highway Trust Fund to accelerate the construction of a network of interstate roads. By 1991, the Interstate Highway System in the U.S. consisted of over 42,000 miles of highways. Unlike local roadways, superhighways were designed to bypass large population centers, and were accessible in limited locations at planned entrance and exit interchanges. These highly efficient roadways allow motorists today to travel from one end of the country to the other without having to slow down for intersections and traffic signals.

@@Harbor
Just because a city is built in a coastal region doesn't guarantee that the city is readily accessible by ship. In order for a port city to establish a steady trade, fishing, or other shipping industry, the city must have a harbor. A harbor is a protected body of water that opens into an ocean or lake that shelters ships from waves and high winds. Although some coastal cities are established in areas where a natural harbor exists, most seaports are forced either to improve the existing natural harbor, or to build a man-made harbor to shelter ships and provide channels deep enough to accommodate large vessels.

@WONDER_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the WONDER.PDE text file in the ;original Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;
; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,
; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that
; corresponds to the rules entry, but adjusted by NUM_IMPROVEMENTS.
; For example, Adam Smith's Trading Co. will be the 0'th (remember,
; the list is zero based)(INDEX - NUM_INPROVEMENTS) description below begining with @@.
; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.
; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.
;
@@WONDER_INDEX
21,			; Pyramids
9,			; Hanging Gardens
2,			; Colossus
15,			; Lighthouse
7,			; Great Library
20,			; Oracle
8,			; Great Wall
25,			; Sun Tzu's War Academy
13,			; King Richard's Crusade
18,			; Marco Polo's Embassy
19,			; Michelangelo's Chapel
3,			; Copernicus' Observatory
16,			; Magellan's Expedition
23,			; Shakespeare's Theatre
14,			; Leonardo's Workshop
12,			; J. S. Bach's Cathedral
11,			; Isaac Newton's College
0,			; Adam Smith's Trading Co.
5,			; Darwin's Voyage
24,			; Statue of Liberty
6,			; Eiffel Tower
27,			; Women's Suffrage
10,			; Hoover Dam
17,			; Manhattan Project
26,			; United Nations
1,			; Apollo Program
22,			; SETI Program
4,			; Cure for Cancer
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Adam Smith's Trading Co.
Adam Smith is generally regarded as the father of modern economics. In his book "The Wealth of Nations", he analyzed the economic processes of supply and demand, and discussed how free trade and individual ambition would lead to both economic and social growth. Smith favored a political environment where the government would only become involved in business and trade to preserve justice and order. Smith's ideas of economics and the lack of government involvement form the basis of modern economic liberalism.

@@Apollo Program
The Apollo Program was begun by the United States in the late 1960s. Following the success of the manned orbital missions of the Mercury and Gemini programs, the destination of the Apollo program was the moon. The early Apollo flights concentrated on orbital observations of the moon, and testing the docking systems of the Apollo craft. The ultimate goal of the Apollo Program was accomplished by Apollo 11 on July 20, 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first human to walk on the moon. Several other landings followed, the last being Apollo 17 in December, 1972. The Apollo program truly represented a "giant leap for mankind". The U.S. manned lunar missions are unparalleled feats in space exploration, and the technology originally developed for the Apollo Program was later found to be invaluable in designing future space vehicles and orbital platforms.

@@Colossus
The Colossus of Rhodes was a bronze statue of Helios, the Greek God of the Sun, erected near the mouth of the city harbor. It stood over 100 feet high, about two-thirds the height of the Statue of Liberty. Unfortunately, it was toppled by an earthquake only 56 years after its construction. Taking the counsel of an oracle, the city elected to leave the statue where it lay. For over 900 years, people from all over the ancient world came to Rhodes to see the Colossus. It remained where it was until 654 AD when the Muslims who plundered the city sold the statue for scrap. 

@@Copernicus' Observatory
Ancient astronomers originally put forth the theory that the Sun was the center of our solar system, and that the planets revolved around it. This knowledge was lost during the Dark Ages, but was re-introduced in the early 16th Century by Nicholas Copernicus. Copernicus' research and theories form the foundation for modern astronomy. Copernicus collected his data from his observatory, a small room in the spire of an East Prussian cathedral. His research methods and observations also marked the rebirth of the scientific method, and were an important step in the advance of knowledge.

@@Cure for Cancer
Despite the huge outlays of cash for research and study, cancer still looms as a terrifying and deadly plague on the human race. Although scientists and doctors have discovered many different forms of cancer, and have identified some of the factors that can trigger the disease, a true cure still eludes modern medical science. A cure for cancer would put an end to the source of much suffering and anguish, and allow millions of people, who would otherwise be doomed, to lead happy and productive lives.

@@Darwin's Voyage
Charles Darwin, the main proponent of the theory of evolution based on natural selection, built up much of his evidence for this theory during a five-year voyage around the world. His voyage aboard the H.M.S. Beagle was instrumental not only in the establishment of his theory, but also in the application of the scientific method to the study of nature. Darwin published his theory of evolution in his book "The Origin of the Species". His studies were so thorough that the scientific world never challenged his findings. However, his findings were, and continue to be, challenged on philosophical and religious grounds. Darwin's research opened many new lines of inquiry, and inspired a wave of new biological research.

@@Eiffel Tower
The Eiffel Tower is one of the world's most famous landmarks. Built for the Universal Exposition of 1889, the tower rises 984 feet above Paris' Champ de Mars, near the Seine River. Structural engineer Alexandre Gustave Eiffel built the tower at a cost of more than $1 million to demonstrate how steel and iron could be utilized in the construction of extremely tall buildings. The tallest building in the world when it was originally built, the Eiffel Tower drew crowds of awestruck observers from around the world. Today, it remains one of Paris' leading tourist attractions.

@@Great Library
The Great Library of Alexandria was one of the two most important libraries of the ancient world. It was founded around 300 BC by Ptolemy I, and was enhanced and expanded by his successors. The library attempted to obtain copies of all scrolls of any consequence, and eventually contained over 700,000 volumes. The library was destroyed by religious fanatics in 391 AD, after nearly 700 years of operation. During this period, Alexandria served as the cultural center of the Hellenistic world. Today, only part of the catalog remains, providing us with a mere hint of what treasures the library contained.

@@Great Wall
The Great Wall of China, a huge stone structure stretching from the Yellow Sea to the Asian deserts, was built over a period of approximately 1,800 years. The wall is 25 feet high and 12 feet thick, and runs nearly 1,500 miles across northern China. The purpose of the Great Wall was to make it difficult for raiders to escape with their booty, and thereby discourage invasion. Despite its overwhelming size, the wall was not intended to keep invaders out, since manning such a defensive structure would have been prohibitively expensive.

@@Hanging Gardens
The Hanging Gardens were a distinctive feature of ancient Babylon. They were a great source of pride to the people, and were often described in accounts written by visitors to the city. Possibly built by King Nebuchadnezzar II in 600 BC, the gardens are believed to have been a remarkable feat of engineering: an ascending series of tiered gardens containing all manner of trees, shrubs, and vines. The gardens were said to have looked like a large green mountain constructed of mud bricks, rising from the center of the city.

@@Hoover Dam
For centuries, mankind has been harnessing the power of rivers to move waterwheels for various purposes. With the advent of electrical power, it was found the rivers were also very useful for generating electricity. Hydroelectric power plants derive power from rivers by constructing dams to ensure a dependable supply of water. The overflow is then released through special chambers where the moving water turns giant turbines, generating electricity. When planned and engineered properly, this system provides an excellent power source with very limited environmental impact. The Hoover Dam, constructed on the Colorado River near Las Vegas, was one of the earliest hydroelectric power plants.

@@Isaac Newton's College
Sir Isaac Newton, a mathematician and physicist, is considered to be one of the greatest scientists of all time. He is credited with many important discoveries including the laws of gravity, the color spectrum of light, calculus, fluid dynamics, and an understanding of ocean tides. He also built the world's first reflecting telescope. For 32 years, he held an important teaching post at Cambridge University, where he continued his own research while instructing a generation of students.

@@J.S. Bach's Cathedral
Few composers were more prolific or beloved than Johann Sebastian Bach. Bach, the most well-known member of a gifted family of German musicians, was perhaps the finest composer of the baroque style of music. In his time, he wrote numerous choral and orchestral pieces. During his lifetime, he was renowned as an organist and music director of St. Thomas' Church in Leipzig, and many of his compositions were religious in nature. After his death, Bach's music gained worldwide appreciation.

@@King Richard's Crusade
The Crusades were a series of military expeditions by European Christians between 1095 and 1270 AD intended to recapture the Christian Holy Land from Muslim control. The most successful was the Third Crusade, in which a tremendous force led by King Richard I and Philip Augustus managed to regain control over a number of cities along the Mediterranean coast and reconstitute the Latin Kingdom in Palestine. In addition to their more altruistic goals, the Crusades also served to extend the political and religious power of the Pope over a larger area of the world. This great burst of territorial expansion led to an increase in both the population and the productivity of Europe. The ongoing wars provided lucrative business for Western European traders and merchants.

@@Leonardo's Workshop
Leonardo da Vinci was one of the most celebrated painters of the Italian Renaissance. His most famous works include the "Mona Lisa" and "The Last Supper". Although best known for his art, da Vinci was also an accomplished observer and designer. Preserved in his sketch books are ideas for dozens of inventions, many of them centuries ahead of their time. These include designs for such devices as draw bridges, construction equipment, parachutes, and even helicopters. His scientific and technical drawings became the basis for the development of many of these modern devices.

@@Lighthouse
The Pharos was a marble watch tower and lighthouse built in 280 BC on an island in the harbor of Alexandria, Egypt. Estimated to have been 300 feet high, the primary function of the lighthouse was to guide approaching ships to the harbor on an otherwise unmarked coast. Historians debate whether fires were burned on the top of the tower, or whether mirrors were used to reflect sunlight. Since ships rarely sailed along coasts at night, there was probably little need for the lighthouse after dark. The Pharos was destroyed in the 14th century, after having been damaged by several earthquakes.

@@Magellan's Expedition
In 1519, Ferdinand Magellan sailed from Spain with the intention to reach the spice-rich Malouccas Islands of Indonesia by sailing west, instead of east. Although Magellan himself was killed by natives in the Philippines, his expedition went on to prove conclusively that the world was round. More importantly, it proved that the Americas were indeed a New World. Magellan's expedition was one of the great sea voyages of history, and it inspired further expeditions by other explorers. The discoveries made along the way reduced the dangers to all the sea expeditions that followed.

@@Manhattan Project
The Manhattan Project was the code name for an intensive and costly research effort during World War II that resulted in the development of atomic weapons. The first two such weapons, the bombs dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima in 1945, brought an end to the second World War. For a short time, the United States held a monopoly on atomic weapons. However, by 1949 the Soviet Union had also developed similar technology, based in part on Manhattan Project information obtained through espionage. The nuclear standoff that has resulted from this balance of power may be largely responsible for the absence of major wars since World War II.

@@Marco Polo's Embassy
Marco Polo was a trader, writer, and world traveler who lived in the late 13th and early 14th century. Starting as a young boy, he began traveling with his father and uncle, who were merchants and traders in Venice, along a route that would take him throughout Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Throughout his life, he visited many places bringing back detailed information concerning lands that no European before him had visited. Polo's book, "The Travels of Marco Polo", was the only existing source of reliable information on such exotic locales as Siam, Japan, Java, Tibet, and India that existed in medieval Europe.

@@Michelangelo's Chapel
With origins in Prohibition era moral zealots paranoid of reefer madness and agribusiness interests paranoid of cheap hemp paper and rope, the US led the world into nearly a century of marijuana prohibition.  At the height of the War on Drugs, the majority of prison inmates were being locked up for marijuana offenses.  
Realizing such cures were worse than the disease, Californian voters passed Proposition 215 in 1996, which legalized medical marijuana, paving the way for cannibis clubs and decriminalization.  Under decriminalization, marijuana became the lowest priority for police, below even jaywalking.  Federal law still prohibited any use, however, leaving it in a semilegal gray zone.  

@@Oracle
In ancient Greek religion, an oracle was a priest or priestess through whom the gods spoke in response to questions. The oracle interpreted dreams, the actions of entranced persons, and physical signs found in the entrails of sacrificed animals. The most famous oracle resided in the shrine of Apollo at Delphi, located on the slopes of Mount Parnassus. This oracle was consulted for centuries by Greeks, Romans, and others about public policy and private matters. A priestess called the Pythia would, for a fee, make public predictions for the future. These ecstatic pronouncements became infamous for their ambiguity.

@@Pyramids
Built by the fourth dynasty of Egyptian rulers, the Pyramids represent the pinnacle of ancient Egyptian cultural achievement. Constructed on the Giza plateau outside modern-day Cairo, these structures were burial tombs and monuments for the Pharaohs, and may have taken generations and tens of thousands of workers to complete. The Pyramids are the only one of the generally accepted man-made wonders of the ancient world that remain in existence today.

@@SETI Program
While politicians may speak of information superhighways, systems administrators tend to prefer the more prosaic and appropriate lingo of plumbing.  After all, universal Internet access holds the promise to fulfill the needs of the mind much the way indoor plumbing made fulfilling the body simple.  
Much in the way a 20th century Californian takes for granted the convenience of not having to walk to the well to fetch water, the 21st century Netizen has art, knowledge, and entertainment at her fingertips.  
The issue of food distribution has yet to be engineered, to the great relief of restaurant owners everywhere.  

@@Shakespeare's Theatre
Most of the plays of William Shakespeare were first performed on the stage of London's Globe Theatre during the 1600s. Theater offered people a diversion from their everyday lives by allowing them to enjoy comedies, tragedies, and triumphs acted out on stage. Similar theaters, such as the Comedie Francaise in Paris, and La Scala in Milan, fulfilled similar roles by offering entertainment to the citizens of their cities. Although the original Globe Theatre burned down, Shakespeare's plays are still performed in a new theater bearing his name, and in other theaters throughout the world.

@@Statue of Liberty
Most famous for being home to U-2 high altitude spy planes during the Cold War, Beale Air Force Base sprawls over an area greater than the entire City of San Francisco east of Marysville.  After a couple rounds of BRAC base closings in the 90s and 00s, it is one of the few remaining military bases in the greater Bay Area.  
With its long runways and extensive facilities, this major airfield shows potential as a place for the basing of black helicopters.  

@@Sun Tzu's War Academy
One of the earliest pieces of military literature is "The Art of War", written by Chinese general Sun Tzu in the 6th century BC. This book contained a detailed explanation and analysis of the Chinese military, from weapons and strategy to rank and discipline. Sun Tzu also stressed the importance of intelligence operatives and espionage to the war effort. Because Sun Tzu has long been considered to be one of history's finest military tacticians and analysts, his teachings and strategies formed the basis of advanced military training for centuries to come.

@@United Nations
Established following World War II, the United Nations is an international organization dedicated to promoting world peace and security. The U.N. also attempts to achieve international cooperation in solving world problems concerning the environment, economics, and cultural issues. Although its peace keeping role is not always entirely successful, it has remained an effective forum for debate where all nations can voice their concerns on matters of worldwide importance.

@@Women's Suffrage
After decades of struggle, women in the United States won the right to vote in 1920 with the passage of the 19th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. The achievement of women's suffrage was accelerated by the excellent record of women working in jobs traditionally held by men during World War I. Full voting rights were granted to women in Great Britain in 1928. Since that time, women have gained the right to vote in most countries in the developed world.

@UNIT_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the UNITS.PDE and UNITS2.PDE text ;files in the original Civilopedia, strung together to make one contiguous section. (French and German ;versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;
; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,
; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that
; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Settlers will be the 50'th (remember,
; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.
; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.
; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.
;
@@UNIT_INDEX
49,			; Settlers
21,			; Engineers
43,			; Warriors
46,			; Phalanx
2,			; Archers
33,			; Legion
47,			; Pikemen
36,			; Musketeers
23,			; Fanatics
45,			; Partisans
1,			; Alpine Troops
48,			; Riflemen
34,			; Marines
44,			; Paratroopers
35,			; Mech. Inf.
29,			; Horsemen
13,			; Chariot
20,			; Elephant
14,			; Crusaders
32,			; Knights
19,			; Dragoons
12,			; Cavalry
3,			; Armor
11,			; Catapult
7,			; Cannon
4,			; Artillery
30,			; Howitzer
24,			; Fighter
6,			; Bomber
28,			; Helicopter
39,			; Stlth Ftr.
38,			; Stlth Bmbr.
42,			; Trireme
9,			; Caravel
27,			; Galleon
26,			; Frigate
31,			; Ironclad
17,			; Destroyer
16,			; Cruiser
0,			; AEGIS Cruiser
5,			; Battleship
40,			; Submarine
10,			; Carrier
41,			; Transport
15,			; Cruise Msl.
37,			; Nuclear Msl.
18,			; Diplomat
50,			; Spy
8,			; Caravan
25,			; Freight
22,			; Explorer
51,			; Extra Land
52,			; Extra Ship
53,			; Extra Air
54,			; Test Unit 1
55,			; Test Unit 2
56,			; Test Unit 3
57,			; Test Unit 4
58,			; Test Unit 5
59,			; Test Unit 6
60,			; Test Unit 7
61,			; Test Unit 8
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Battleship
Following its decommissioning after over 50 years of active service, the battleship U.S.S. Iowa was offered up as a naval museum.  San Francisco was offered the ship, but the Board of Supervisors voted to reject it, not wanting a symbol of the military among its many tourist attractions.  

Instead, the ship went to the inland port of Stockton.   This floating steel fortress can blow just about anything out of the water, and threaten cities up and down the Bay and the San Joaquin River.    

Graphic by Nemo.

@@Hippie
Dude, while we may be best known for peace and pot smoking, we hippies will stand up to the Man when we need to!  

Note: Once you can train Activists, hippies won't become obsolete or even fade away... they'll just keep on building.  

@@Peace Mobile
These tie-dye tanks are lovingly crafted from captured tanks at the New United Motor works in Fremont.  Rumor has it that the entire transmission has been replaced by duct tape and WD-40 by the half-baked engineers who came up with this idea.  Though derided by technical purists as being the bastard child of a turtle and an orange toilet on wheels, Peace Mobiles retain a surprising amount of their original's strength.    

@@Ashby Lvl 1
A friend of Cloyne Court and an active member of the Berkeley Stop the Jebus Nuts Coalition, Ashby Adeline is also known as the inventor of a curious martial art that combines the elements of professional wrestling and yoga.  

Fast and with a powerful attack, Ashby can spearhead attacks on fortified positions.  

When defeated in battle, Ashby will revive in San Francisco.  Note that this only works when fighting Jebusland.  

@@Ashby Lvl 3
When the limits of biological stem cells were reached, further power-upping is achievable with things such as Super Mushrooms and Fire Flowers.  

When defeated in battle, Ashby will revive in San Francisco.  Note that this only works when fighting Jebusland. 

@@Angel
The next step after animal testing of making things fly was naturally making people fly.  With a powered exoskeletal wings, the Angel can get literally high without pot.  The spiritual imagery of the winged human is also potent against diehard fundamentalists.  

Angels must land every turn in a friendly city.  

@@Giant molehill
hill - no description needed

@@Ashby Lvl 2
After a dinner of oyster stem shells at Pier 38 in Mission Bay, Ashby is now much stronger and faster, and can also swim. 
 
When defeated in battle, Ashby will revive in San Francisco.  Note that this only works when fighting Jebusland. 

@@Airship
After close to a century of obscurity, airships finally made a comeback when fancy new technologies enabled the open defiance of the laws of gravity.  In short, the bulky helium bags have been replaced by small crystalline packages of Cannibisium, an artificial element that has a negative mass.  

We're not quite sure what the scientists were smoking when they invented this stuff up at the Berkeley Lab, and every time I see it in use, I still scratch my head and wonder how much weed I've been smoking.  But those airships do work, and like the motorist who simply aims the car and hits the gas, I'm not complaining.  

All trips got to end sometime, and Airships have to land at the end of each turn.  

@@Prison
The California Department of Corrrections embarked on a building spree when tough-on-crime laws skyrocketed the number of inmates.  Among such laws is the infamous Three Strikes law, under which someone could get life imprisonment for three counts of shoplifting.  

These facilities range from minimum-security trailers to formidable Supermax fortresses, often ringed by electric fence and guard towers.  These concrete bunkers, now reappropriated for defense, have proven to be just as hard to get in as to get out.  

@@Dark Tower
One of the hallmarks of being an evil badass is to have appropriately badass digs.  In the case of Ahnuld's regime, this megalomaniacal urge manifested itself in the form of the Tower of Pain.  Rising over a hundred stories over the Central Valley, the Tower contained at its heart an even greater number of subbasement levels.

Official reports claim it is merely a sophisticated oil drilling operation, but our psychics suggest more sinister motives involving demons.  

@@Psychic
The difference between bending spoons and bending tanks is merely a matter of scale.  Such is the slogan of the First Psychic Brigade.  

Such power is achieved with a combination of rigorous mental training and an elaborate piece of brain-interface electronics that amplifies neural pulses to manipulate matter and energy with frightening efficiency.  

@@Ahnuld
Jacked up on not mere steroids but dangerous supersteroids, Ahnuld stands over eight meters tall.  Even more aggressive than his previous three incarnations, Ahnuld can also take much more punishment.  

@@Gun Nut
Armed with a motley assortment of rifles, handguns, and submachineguns, Gun Nuts form the core of the Jebusland military.  With aim diluted by alcohol, these buggers are more of a nuisance than a real obstacle - until the advent of the Ownership Society, where such slothful impulses are overridden by a primal rage to defend private property.  

@@Governator-1000
The G-1000 is the result of sellout Jebusland nerds who grafted advanced military bioenhancements onto that most dangerous of civilians - the actor-politician.  

The G-1000 is deployed in Sacramento, but rest assured - he'll come and find you.  Recall his liquid metal ass to get some key robotic technology.  

@@Fenwick Tower Base
fenwick tower bottom - no description needed

@@Gunboat
A boat with guns.  'Nuff said.

@@Ferry
Prior to the opening of the Golden Gate and Bay Bridges in the 1930s, transbay commuting was done via ferryboats to the Ferry Building at the northeast end of Market Street in San Francisco.  The boats would meet interurban railroads at the end of long piers in the Bay to load and unload passengers.  

After the bridges were opened, ferry service dropped off and the Ferry Building itself went into over 60 years of disrepair, with the elevated Embarcadero Freeway cutting it off from the rest of the city.  

The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake revived the ferries.  With part of the Bay Bridge collapsed and repairs taking months, ferries and the BART rapid transit system picked up the slack.  Since then, ferries offer fast nonstop commutes from San Francisco to points as far south as Alameda, as far north as Larkspur in Marin County, and all the way east to Vallejo.  Additionally, the freeway in front of the Ferry Building has been demolished and replaced with a landscaped boulevard, on which vibrant markets are held many times a week.  

@@Nerd
The image of the revolutionary is often that of an angry, militant youth.  Behind the loud facades however are real intellectuals who have more interest in the way the world works than getting drunk and laid at a fraternity party.  

Nerds can access information, sabotage production, win enemy troops to the cause, and spread the revolution to entire cities.  Use them wisely and use them often, they are one of your most important units. 

@@Conan
Following his release from the Smoke Filled Room of Pain, Conan the Republican has been set on a mission to smash the latte machines of the vast left wing conspiracy.  

Conan is significantly tougher than his cyborg predecessors and should be dealt with accordingly.

@@Cyberdemon
Half unfeeling machine, half raging horned devil. This walking nightmare has a rocket launcher for an arm and will definately reach out and touch you. Make sure you're loaded for bear before you get to this guy...

A missile launching skyscraper with goat legs.  Nuff' said...

@@Contractor
Much maligned by just about everyone else involved or affected in construction, contractors nontheless fulfill the vital and messy task of realizing paper plans into real construction.  

Your contractors are capable of a wide range of tasks from tearing down freeways to building condos to cleaning up Superfund sites.  Recent legislation by the Citizens Council has required the provision of decent housing for the migrant labor used, alloting one unit of housing per contractor.   

@@Bridge Out
The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake is perhaps the only earthquake where the majority of the fatalities were not caused by collapsing buildings.  Instead, the greatest destruction occured on many of the elevated freeways crisscrossing the area.  

Since then, said freeways have either been retrofitted, demolished, or rebuilt in new locations.  The only exceptio is the replacement east span of the Bay Bridge, which is still under construction due to funding delays and is not scheduled for completion until 2011, more than two decades after the earthquake.

Bridge Outs can only be removed by Bridge Crews.  Additionally, they only block your units - Jebus can walk on water.

@@Cloyne 2
Nanotechnology - making people better, faster, and stronger.  Without the side effects of steroids.  

@@Fighter
black helicopter

@@Freight
hippie traders

@@Sutro Tower
Sutro Tower Base- no description needed

@@Fenwick Tower Top
Fenwick Tower Top - no description needed

@@Helicopter
jet

@@Horsemen
SUV

@@Howitzer
ashby 4

@@Ironclad
lazor frig

@@Knights
G-X

@@Legion
tank

@@Marines
Cloyne 3

@@Mechanized Infantry
cloyne 5

@@Musketeers
rambo

@@Nuclear Missile
weed truck

@@Stealth Bomber
big mountain left side - no description needed

@@Stealth Fighter
pegasus

@@Submarine
nimby

@@Transport
emperor bush II

@@Trireme
big mountain right side - no description needed

@@Mad Cow
Normal cows are vegetarian.  Under the factory farming system, however, such things are ignored in the interest of profit.  After the choice cuts and ground beef are shredded off the carcass on the whole cow processor, remaining entrails and bones are sent to the grinder for conversion into cattle feed.  

Mad Cow disease is thus easily transmitted from one cow to whole warehouses of cows, since the disease resides in prions within the bone of the cow.  Cooking the meat cannot kill these prions, which cause the cow to go mad, get sick, and die.  People who eat such cow are prone to similar fates.  

Exploding mad cows, on the other hand, are a derivative of research into fuel crops.  By feeding cows heavily fertilized petrocorn, benign farm animals were mutated into four-legged bombs.    

Graphics courtesy of Favoured Flight.

@@Paratroopers
cloyne 4

@@Activists
While hippies simply dropped out of the mainstream, activists fight against it.  Ranging from peaceful sign wavers to window smashing anarchists, activists are on the cutting edge of political outreach and advocacy, grabbing headlines and inspiring bored youth.  Training and experience have made them more resistant to the po-po than their hippie cousins.  

Like hippies, activists eventually become outclassed by better defensive units, however, they will continue to organize in your cities.  

Activists will appear outside cities after enemy capture.  

@@Phalanx
giant mecha

@@Pikemen
mammoth tank

@@Majical Girl
Typically an otherwise ordinary teenage girl with extraordinary supernatural abilities, mahou shoujo have saved Japan from destruction for decades.  Now imported to the other side of the Pacific, their NorCal counterparts are the third generation of defense.  While garage engineering has replaced arcane magic, their abilities remain potent.  The angst problem also seems to have been magnified, despite the more pleasant Californian climate.  

As with other defensive units, mahou shoujo do not become obsolete until a few techs after a superior unit is available.

@@Tree
While man-eating plants were common in 19th century legend, exploration found them to be just a rumor.  For all its intimidating jaws, the Venus Fly Trap was just that - a fly trap.  

Until now.  

During his years at Stanfurd, Joe Sequoia donned a felt-green tent as the team mascot.  Now, this tree hugging mad scientist in the back woods of Marin County took the next step after tree hugging - mating with the tree by means of a gene splicer and some test tubes.  The resulting tree, if it could be called such, would make any elf proud.  Standing close ot a hundred meters tall and with moving limbs and deep roots, the Tree is second to none when it comes to holding ground.  It is rumored that Joe's lab is hidden somewhere near the fabled groves of Muir Woods.

@@H4xx0r
While typing in 1337 (leet, aka elite) is now associated with teenage script kiddies rather than real hackers, the substitution of numbers for letters in everyday speech is symbolic of a state of digital nirvana alluded to in movies such as Teh Matrix.  

Various forms of 1337 exist, ranging from simple substitutions of a few letters with numbers, to hardcore 1337 that replaces all letters with numbers and other symbols, to ever more esoteric forms that mash in Japanese katakana.  

Functionally, 1337 H4xx0rs are overclocked nerds loaded with more features.  They are less likely to get caught by firewalls, and can also delete users from systems, effectively knocking whole chunks of the population out of the economy.  

@@Cloyne Lvl 1
A graduate student of nanotechnology at the time of the Jebusland takeover, Cloyne Court now leads the fight against Teh Man.  

Strong on offense but even stronger on the defense, Cloyne is second to none when it comes to holding onto new cities from counterattack.  

When defeated in battle, Cloyne will revive in San Francisco.  Note that this only works when fighting Jebusland.  

@@52
Cloyne 6

@@53
Conspicuous consumption's brief hibernation in the Sixties was a mere aberration.  When it returned, however, it took on the greenwashed guise of Conscientious Consumption, a way of flaunting one's bleeding heart political correctness.  

Ways of being a Conscientious Consumer include buying fair trade bananas, travelling off the beaten path, eating at organic vegan restaurants, and listening to ethnic indie music.  By the 21st century, Conscientious Consumption had gotten big enough and its original proponents wealthy enough that it moved beyond food and small goods to large purchases such as housing and automobiles.

With gas mileages more than double that of conventional cars and close to an order of magnitude superior to SUVs, hybrid cars offered their drivers all the convenience of car ownership with less guilt of burning the blood of Iraqi children.  For the true Conscientious Consumer, there was biodiesel.  This fuel oil is made from reprocessed used vegetable oil.    

Unit graphic is the Fusion Tank from Call to Power.  

@@54
A7 unused slot

@@55
From the earliest conceptions of heaven, floating cities have always been a keystone of folklore and mythology.  Even today they continue to evoke wonder in science fiction, be it Cloud City from Star Wars or Laputa from the anime Castle in the Sky.  

In the modern day, floating cities have gained technical credenbility in the from of Buckminster Fuller's Cloud Nine floating geodesic spheres.  These structures essentially function as kilometer-diameter hot air balloons heated by the sun.  While real estate of even the ground-foundation variety often rises and falls on hot air, this concept is nontheless unnerving.  There is also of course the issue of navigation and control that plague conventional hot air ballooning.  Cheap portable energy would help solve this issue.  
       
Unit graphic is one of Favoured Flight's fantasy cities grafted onto a recoloured flying saucer from BlackClove's Alien Invasion scenario.  

@@56
Much maligned CalTrans, the California Department of Transporation, builds and maintains the extensive freeway system in California.  As the name implies, freeways are generally toll free, in sharp contrast to the turnpikes of the East Coast.  
The secret to this is a much steeper tax on gasoline.  Bridges still require tolls, but these are generally much cheaper than comparable crossings elsewhere in the country.  For example, even after a doubling in tolls caused by the need to retrofit and replace parts of the Bay Bridge, the five-mile crossing of the Bay is still around half the cost of the Hudson River tunnels into New York.  

The view is also a lot better.  

Unit graphic is a cement mixer in standard CalTrans orange color.  

@@57
Cheech Wizard

@@58
Ashby 5

@@59
Ashby 6

@@Imperial Walker
The hulking AT-AT Imperial Walkers from Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back are in fact based on the container cranes at the Port of Oakland.  

One particular working specimen is rumored to exist in an ILM studio deep in Marin County's Lucas Valley.  Our intelligence suggests that it is in the hands of an insane fan.

@@61
Dragon

@TERRAIN_AND_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the TERRAIN.PDE text file in the ;original Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;
; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,
; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that
; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Settlers will be the 50'th (remember,
; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.
; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.
; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.
;
@@TERRAIN_INDEX
0,			; Desert
8,			; Plains
3,			; Grassland
1,			; Forest
4,			; Hills
6,			; Mountains
11,			; Tundra
2,			; Glacier
10,			; Swamp
5,			; Jungle
7,			; Ocean
24,			; Oasis
12,			; Buffalo
3,			; Grassland
18,			; Pheasant
13,			; Coal
21,			; Gold
18,			; Game
23,			; Ivory
26,			; Peat
20,			; Gems
14,			; Fish
25,			; Desert Oil
30,			; Wheat
3,			; Grassland
27,			; Silk
31,			; Wine
22,			; Iron
16,			; Furs
25,			; Glacier Oil
28,			; Spice
15,			; Fruit
29,			; Whales
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

;Terrain Types
@@Desert
Deserts are arid stretches of land characterized by an annual rainfall of less than ten inches. Adding to the dry environment is the fact that, because the desert atmosphere has such low humidity, evaporation of moisture from the ground exceeds precipitation. Many deserts are characterized by extremely high daytime temperatures and equally low night time temperatures. Only the hardiest plants and animals can survive in the harsh desert environment. Despite the perception that deserts are composed of useless sand, most desert soil is naturally fertile because little water moves through the desert to carry away nutrients. Through the use of artificial irrigation, humans have managed to grow crops in desert environments. If this is not done carefully, it can lead to irreversible environmental damage when the meager water supply that is tapped for the irrigation process is depleted.

@@Forest
Extensive areas of land covered by a thick growth of trees and related ground vegetation are classified as forests. There are several different types of forest, determined primarily by climate and the type of vegetation they contain. Forests of some type exist on nearly every continent in the world. Forests are a valuable source of natural resources, providing wood for paper products, building, and other purposes. The harvesting of trees must be done carefully, however. If not done in moderation, lumbering can destroy the natural habitat for indigenous animal species, and destroy the ecology of the land. Government regulations limiting the amount of trees that can be cut, and requiring the lumber industry to plant new trees to replace what they have harvested, help to prevent major ecological damage as a result of deforestation.

@@Glacier
Glaciers are large masses of ice and snow found in mountain regions, and near the north and south poles of the planet, where the rate at which snow and ice melt is less than the rate of snowfall. There are several varieties of glaciers: alpine and piedmont glaciers, which are formed in the valleys of high mountain regions; and ice cap and continental glaciers that may cover large portions of a continent. All glaciers are similar in composition, consisting of upper layers of softer snow and ice crystals, and lower layers of highly compressed, solid ice. Although some glaciers are stationary, some may move anywhere from a few feet to more than 100 feet each day, carving and reshaping the land as they go. Glacial regions are inhospitable, containing little animal life, no plant life, and virtually no resources of any kind.

@@Grassland
The areas of land between desert regions and forests in temperate and tropical climates usually consist of grasslands. These fertile regions, covered with various types of vegetation, once occupied large areas of North and South America, Africa, and Eurasia. These areas are characterized by marked wet and dry seasons, with annual periods of drought. Although many grasslands are naturally occurring, grasslands can also be created through deforestation of woodland areas. Grasslands are often cultivated and used as pastures and grazing lands. Because of the relatively low rainfall in these regions, the topsoil is high in nutrients. Grasslands are, therefore, well suited for growing crops, especially grain crops.

@@Hills
Rolling areas of the countryside, often found between plains and more mountainous regions are known as hills, or foothills. These areas, often covered with rich soil and grasses or heavily forested, are rich in resources. Coal, iron, lead, copper, and even gold and silver may be found in these regions, making them profitable areas for the mining industry. In areas where the below-ground resources are scarce, hill areas are often cultivated for agricultural purposes. Certain crops such as coffee and grapes thrive in these regions, given the proper climate.

@@Jungle
In heavily forested areas where rainfall is high, the growth of both trees and other indigenous plants is profuse. The dense, tangled environment of the jungle is home to wide varieties of plant and animal life. Although mineral deposits and fruit-bearing plants can sometimes be found in these regions, jungles tend to lack both mineral and food resources. This, combined with the sheer density of the native plant life, makes jungles inhospitable to humans. In order to make these areas more useful, jungles are often destroyed through forestation and burning to yield areas of grassland. While this improves the usefulness of the land for humans, it destroys the habitat of the indigenous animals of the region. It is estimated that hundreds of undiscovered species of insect and animal life are made extinct every day as a result of the destruction of jungles and rain forests.

@@Mountains
Mountains are areas of high elevation, usually consisting of a chain of rugged peaks and valleys. Most mountains are formed when the plates making up the Earth's crust impact or slide against one another, raising layers of rock above the surrounding land. Mountains can also be formed by volcanic action, or through the effects of erosion. Although generally poor agricultural regions, mountains are often a source of great mineral wealth, with large deposits of gold and other valuable ores. Aside from their economic value, mountains provide a natural defensive barrier, shielding human settlements from invaders. Extensive mountain ranges can also greatly affect the weather patterns of a region by blocking and diverting wind and storms.

@@Ocean
The oceans and seas of the world cover almost three-quarters of our planet. They are home to millions of life forms ranging from microscopic plankton to whales, the largest mammals in the world. The animals and plants that inhabit the sea provide an excellent source of food. For centuries, coastal and island cultures have thrived on the resources and easy access to trade provided by the sea. Unfortunately, in many parts of the world, a combination of over-harvesting of marine animals and increased pollution have begun to threaten fragile coastal ecologies. Some species of marine life are seriously threatened. For example, the whaling industry, which thrived in the 19th and early 20th century, is responsible for hunting certain species of whales to near-extinction. Government regulations concerning the dumping of pollutants and the indiscriminate harvesting of marine life are constantly being updated in response to these growing problems.

@@Plains
Plains are vast, open tracts of land, usually with very few trees and covered with vegetation such as sage brush and various grasses. Plains are similar to grasslands, except that the topsoil is often not as well suited for growing food. Often, rich deposits of minerals are also found in plains regions. The indigenous plants of the plains makes them well suited for grazing. Large herds of buffalo and other animals can often be found roaming the area. With the proper irrigation, plains can be easily cultivated into adequate farmland for the production of grains and the raising of livestock.

@@River
Fed by natural springs, snow melt, and small tributary streams, rivers flow from mountains and other upland sources into larger rivers, lakes, and oceans. Rivers can be found in almost any terrain, from lush jungles and forests to arid desert regions. Since the dawn of civilization, towns and cities have grown up around rivers because the land in river valleys is usually very fertile, and well-suited for farming. In addition, the river provided easy and quick access between towns by boat for trade and travel. Water could be channeled from rivers via aqueducts to cities some distance from the river for the purposes of irrigation. Rivers are also good sources of mineral resources, and can provide power to run machinery and generate electricity.

@@Swamp
Swamps are wetlands which are largely uninhabitable by humans. These areas are usually flooded with water, ranging in depth from a few inches to several feet, due to heavy rainfall and overflow from nearby lakes and rivers. Although inhospitable for human life, swamps are teeming with both animal and plant life. Certain spices and useful substances such as peat, which is used as a fertilizer, can be found in abundance in certain swamp areas. Swampland is often drained, and converted into grassland and plains in order to make it more useful for resource and food production. However, environmental groups have been successful in slowing the destruction of wetlands, and setting up sanctuaries for the wildlife that inhabits these regions.

@@Tundra
In the far-northern regions of the world, and in isolated regions in the Antarctic, there are thousands of miles of barren plains known as tundra. These regions have an extremely low average temperature, and a very short summer season. The primary characteristic of the tundra is a layer of permanently frozen soil known as permafrost just below the topsoil layer, which prevents many plants from taking root and making agriculture all but impossible. Like deserts, the tundra receives little precipitation; however, the flat, frozen ground keeps groundwater from draining, forming bogs where various grasses, moss, and other simple vegetation can grow. Despite the harsh environment, a wide variety of animal life flourishes in the tundra, providing possible sources of food, and providing trade potential for the fur and trapping industry.

;Special Resources

@@Buffalo
The plains areas of the world are inhabited by roaming herds of many different varieties of animals. These herd animals have been hunted, both for sport and for food and pelts, throughout history. Some of these animals can even be domesticated and used for farming and other purposes. One of the most widespread herd animals is the buffalo, various species of which are found throughout the world. Bison, commonly referred to as buffalo, were once the most dominant species of the North American plains. Bison were a valuable resource to native American tribes, who hunted the animals as a source of food and pelts. When European settlers began to expand to the west, the bison was hunted to the brink of extinction by thrill-seekers and sports hunters.

@@Coal
More than 300 million years ago, plant life growing in swamps began to decompose. Layers of sand and mud covered the decomposing plants, and the decaying plants were compressed by the combined weight of water and sediment. Over time, the plant matter hardened and became coal. Coal deposits are mined all over the world, and coal was one of the major fuel sources in the world through the 1970's. In many countries, concern over the environmental effects of the burning of coal has led to a decline in its use. The smoke produced by burning coal has a high acid content, and creates an environmental condition known as "acid rain", which is harmful to plant and animal life. Despite the environmental concerns, some of the largest coal mines in the U.S. each still produce more than 450,000 metric tons annually, making coal mining a very profitable industry.

@@Fish
Prevailing winds, ocean currents, and deep water trenches can often combine to produce conditions that are optimum for fishing. In areas such as the Pacific coast of Central and South America, offshore winds push the warm surface waters out to deeper waters. Underwater currents push cold, nutrient-rich water from deep below the surface back toward the coast. The high concentration of nutrients in this colder water, caused by decomposition of organic matter at extreme depths, creates an ideal environment for fish and other sea life. Civilizations with access to areas such as this can significantly increase their food supply by establishing a thriving fishing industry.

@@Fruit
The tropical environments that are so conducive to the growth of jungles also provide the perfect environment for growing certain fruits. Bananas, for example, originally native to the jungles of Southeast Asia, are an excellent, naturally occurring food crop. Many such fruits, including the banana, can be transplanted and grown in similar climates all over the world.

@@Furs
Throughout history, animal furs have been valuable commodities for trade and sale. Many different types of animals including minks, rabbits, and beavers have been captured by trappers for the purpose of obtaining their pelts for use in the making of clothing and other items. The exploration and colonization of the New World caused the fur industry to boom by making a variety of furs readily available. By the late 1800's, farms were set up specifically to raise animals for the fur industry. Starting in the 1970's, environmentalists and animal rights groups have lobbied to change public opinion concerning the harvesting and sale of furs. Despite these vocal groups, the fur industry remains profitable, if not as wide spread, in the world today.

@@Game (Forest)
@@Pheasant
Since ancient times, hunting of game animals has been important both for survival and for sport. Forested areas containing a large concentration of deer, elk, and smaller game were very valuable as a source of food for nearby settlements and cities. Though the widespread practice of farming domestic animals for food purposes has made hunting for sport much more common than hunting for food, certain animals such as geese, ducks, and deer are still frequently hunted and killed for food.

@@Musk Ox
Settlements in the sparse tundra regions of the arctic cannot raise crops and domestic animals for food due to the harsh conditions. They are, therefore, much more dependent on the hunting and trapping of local wildlife for food. The many species of birds and small game, as well as larger animals such as elk and caribou, provide a source of food in an environment that is otherwise barren and inhospitable.

@@Gems
Gemstones, treasured throughout time for their beauty and value, have always been a sought-after commodity. Most gemstones, such as diamonds, are mined in various areas throughout the world, most notably Africa. Some of the most notable gem deposits, however, have been found in archeological digs. The ruins of ancient civilizations in the jungles of Central and South America have sometimes been found to hide large quantities of precious and semi-precious gems, as well as gold and other items of value. The discovery of such a site can lead to an increase in trade in the areas surrounding the dig, as both professional and amateur treasure hunters swarm to the region to seek their fortune.

@@Gold
Gold has always been one of the most highly valued metals in the world. It is used in the manufacture of everything from jewelry to electronics, and has been established as the basis for monetary systems world wide. The factor that makes gold valuable is its rarity. Although gold can be found in many different areas, the most valuable deposits are large veins of gold ore running through mountains. When a large deposit is found, mining the deposit greatly boosts the economy in settlements and cities near the mine. An historical example of this phenomenon are the many towns that grew and prospered over a relatively short time during the California gold rush in America during the 1800's.

@@Iron
When early civilizations began to use metal to construct tools and weapons, the most commonly used metal was bronze. Bronze had the advantage of being readily available and easy to work with. Unfortunately, it was too soft to hold an effective edge. In the mid-14th century in central Europe, iron replaced bronze as the metal of choice, and the Iron Age was begun. Since this time, iron has been a valuable commodity. Deposits of iron and iron ore found in mountains are mined and processed for use in their raw form, and in the production of steel.

@@Ivory
Ivory, the hard substance of which elephant tusks are composed, is highly sought for the carving of ornamental objects. Most ivory is obtained from the tusks of African elephants, but other sources include the tusks of walruses and the fossilized tusks of prehistoric elephants and mammoths found in the northern glacial regions of the world. Although importation of ivory has been banned in many countries due to the fact that many of the species from which it is obtained are now endangered, the ivory trade was once a widespread and profitable venture.

@@Oasis
In rare instances, underground reservoirs or rivers beneath a desert may run near the surface, forming a lake in the middle of an otherwise barren region of land. The presence of water allows plants to grow, and may even attract animal life. An oasis makes it easier for human settlements to survive in desert climates by providing rich soil for the growing of food crops. Since they are so rare, oases are fiercely guarded by desert dwellers who are lucky enough to stumble across them.

@@Oil
Oil has been known to humans since ancient times. Oil deposits found on the surface were used for centuries for waterproofing and fuel purposes. But it was not until the coming of the Industrial Revolution that civilization began to form a dependence on petroleum products. The widespread use of oil for fuel, lubrication, and other purposes led to a search for larger supplies. In the mid 1800's, the first oil wells were drilled, marking the beginning of a tremendously important and profitable industry. Today, with the world's oil supplies dwindling and the demand for oil constantly rising, oil is a more valuable resource than ever.

@@Peat
Some bogs and swamps contain a brown organic material known as peat. Peat is made up of partially-decomposed plant matter, and has a high carbon content. Although dried peat is sometimes compressed and burned as fuel, the most valuable use for peat is as a fertilizer and mulch for farming and gardening. The high mineral content and its ability to retain moisture make peat well-suited to this purpose.

@@Silk
Silk has been a valuable commodity for textiles since its properties were discovered in the 27th century BC. Silk is obtained from the cocoon of the silkworm moth, which was originally native to the forests of China. The fine fibers of the cocoon is woven into cloth, which is used to make all types of clothing. Raw silk was obtained only from Asia until 550 AD, when two monks sent from the Roman Empire secretly stole silkworm eggs from China and brought them to Europe. Eventually, silkworms were found in many areas throughout the world. Less expensive synthetic fibers of the 20th century led to a decline in the silk market, but silk is still very popular in many types of clothing and other goods.

@@Spice
Certain types of plants have evolved in such a way that they produce mild toxins or repellents that make their odor or flavor distasteful to animals. Oddly enough, many of these plants were sought by humans because of these smells and tastes. A profitable spice trade was begun by merchants in the Middle East before 2000 BC. Spices are used now, as they were in the ancient world, to preserve food and enhance its flavor. Although spices are now commercially cultivated and prepared, most types can still be found in abundance in nature. Many of the most popular spices, such as cloves and nutmeg, are extracted from plants that grow in tropical or swampy regions of the world.

@@Whales
Whaling, the hunting and killing of whales for oil and other byproducts, was practiced as an organized industry as early as 875 AD. By the 16th century, it had risen to be the principle industry in the coastal regions of Spain and France. The industry spread throughout the world, and became increasingly profitable in terms of trade and resources. Some regions of the world's oceans, along the animals' migration routes, had a particularly dense whale population, and became the targets for large concentrations of whaling ships, and the industry continued to grow well into the 20th century. The depletion of some whale species to near extinction led to the banning of whaling in many countries by 1969, and to a worldwide cessation of whaling as an industry in the late 1980's.

@@Wheat
Wheat has been a staple crop for civilizations occupying temperate zones of the planet since pre-historic times. There is archeological evidence that bread wheat was cultivated in southern Turkestan as early as 6000 BC, though naturally occurring wheat was probably used for food purposes much earlier. Throughout the temperate zones, wheat has become the primary food crop. It is particularly well suited for growth in vast, open plains like those found in the central United States.

@@Wine
Wine, a beverage made from fermented grapes, was first produced as early as 6000 BC. Its use spread throughout the Middle East and Egypt, and it quickly became a popular beverage of the ancient world. The grapes used for the making of wine are grown in many different regions of the world. Most vineyards are located in hills and valleys of temperate regions. Wine making as an industry has been perfected over several centuries. Many regions such as the Rhine and Loire valleys of Europe are well known for their fine wines, and derive a significant portion of their economy from wine making.

@GOVERNMENT_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the GOVERN.PDE text file in the ;original Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;
; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,
; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that
; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Fundamentalism will be the 5'th (remember,
; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.
; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.
; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.
;
@@GOVERNMENT_INDEX
0,			; Anarchy
1,			; Despotism
5,			; Monarchy
2,			; Communism
4,			; Fundamentalism
6,			; Republic
3,			; Democracy
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Anarchy
Anarchy represents not so much a government type as the lack of any stable government. Anarchy occurs when your civilization's government falls, or when you decide to have a Revolution. After a few turns of Anarchy, you can rebuild a new government. Anarchy is similar to Despotism, except that the corruption rate is VERY HIGH. However, no taxes are collected during a period of Anarchy, and no scientific research is conducted.

@@Despotism	
In a Despotism, the ruler has absolute control over his or her subjects, and this control is usually enforced by the military. This system has a tendency to minimize individual freedom, and reduce the efficiency of production efforts. 

* Each unit above the city size costs one Shield per turn.
* Settlers eat one Food per turn.

Up to three military units in each city institute "martial law". Each of these units makes one unhappy citizen content.

Despotism has a high rate of corruption and waste. The farther a city is from your capital, the higher its level of corruption.

* Under a Despotism, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 60%.
* Any terrain square that ordinarily produces three or more of any resource (Food, Shields, or Trade) produces one less.
* Because of Despotism's high rate of corruption, it is almost always an inferior form of government. Try to switch to a Monarchy as soon as possible.

@@Communism
A Communist government is ruled by a controlling party, with a single person, known as a chairman, acting as the head of state. In a true Communist system, all property is owned collectively by the people, and labor is organized to be equally advantageous to all people. This ideal has never truly been realized, however, and the "Communist" governments of the world are usually much different.

* Each unit beyond the third unit costs one Shield per turn.
* Settlers eat one Food per turn.

Up to three military units in each city institute "martial law". Each of these units makes two unhappy citizens content.

Under Communism, state control of the economy eliminates organized crime. Your cities, therefore, experience no corruption.

* All Spy units produced under Communist governments are Veterans.
* Under Communism, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 80%. 

* Communism is best for large, far-flung empires that need to maintain a large military.
* Use your powerful Spies to steal technology from the capitalist pigs!

@@Democracy
A Democracy is ruled by a president elected by the people. The rulings of the president are subject to review by the Senate, a group of elected representatives who serve the best interests of the citizens. Democracy allows its citizens a higher degree of personal freedom and involvement than any other form of government.

* Each unit costs one shield per turn.
* Settlers eat two Food per turn.

Each unit that is not in a friendly city (or in a Fortress within three squares of a friendly city) causes two citizens in its home city to become unhappy.

Democracies experience no corruption or waste.

* Tax/Luxury/Science rates can be set to any level desired.
* Under a Democracy, each square that ordinarily produces at least one unit of Trade produces an extra unit of Trade.
* The units and cities of a Democracy are immune to bribery in any form.
* Your senate may force a peaceful solution in a conflict.

* Democracies can produce spectacular amounts of revenue and scientific research. However, because of the severe happiness restrictions on military units, this form of government tends to be viable only for large, advanced civilizations.
* Increasing your Luxury rate and building Improvements and Wonders can help alleviate unhappiness.

@@Fundamentalism
Fundamentalism is a form of government organized around a central set of beliefs. These beliefs, usually religious in nature, form a rigid guideline for the actions and reactions of both the ruler and the people. In a Fundamentalist society, the people and the rulers are entirely devoted to their beliefs, and are usually willing to die to preserve them.

* Each unit beyond the tenth unit costs one Shield per turn (except Fanatics, which never require maintenance).
* Settlers eat two Food per turn.

Under Fundamentalism, no citizen is ever unhappy!

Fundamentalism has a very low rate of corruption.

* Under Fundamentalism, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 80%.
* Under Fundamentalism, all Science production is HALVED.
* Improvements that normally convert unhappy citizens to content citizens produce "tithes" (money) equivalent to the number of people they would normally convert, and require no maintenance.
* The diplomatic penalties for terrorist acts committed by Diplomats and Spies is reduced.

* Fundamentalism eliminates all happiness problems and provides excellent revenue, although research tends to languish.

@@Monarchy
A Monarchy is ruled by a single person, known as a monarch. The monarch's rule is less absolute than that of a despot, and he or she usually has the acceptance of at least the upper-class. The aristocrats under this system of government have some economic freedom, allowing the civilization to be more productive. 

* Each unit beyond the third unit costs one Shield per turn.
* Settlers eat one Food per turn.

Up to three military units in each city institute "martial law". Each of these units makes one unhappy citizen content.

Monarchy has a moderate rate of corruption and waste. The farther a city is from your capital, the higher its level of corruption.

* Under a Monarchy, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 70%.

* Monarchy is an excellent form of government for a young civilization.

@@Republic
A Republic is an assembly of autonomous city-states under the control of a central government. Although the central government has the ultimate say in matters that affect the society as a whole, the city-states are given a certain amount of latitude in the governing of local affairs. Decisions are made by the ruler, but are subject to review by a group of officials known as the Senate.

* Each unit costs one shield per turn.
* Settlers eat two Food per turn.

Each unit beyond the first unit that is not in a friendly city (or in a Fortress within three squares of a friendly city) causes one citizen in its home city to become unhappy.

Republics experience a low rate of corruption and waste. The farther a city is from your capital, the higher its level of corruption.

* Under a Republic, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 80%.
* Your senate may force a peaceful solution in a conflict.

* Switching to a Republic can give an astounding boost to your Science and Luxury revenues, although you will probably be forced to shift some Trade to Luxuries in order to prevent unhappiness.
* Republics make it difficult and expensive to keep a sizable army in the field, but building certain Improvements and Wonders can help to alleviate this problem.

@CONCEPT_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the CONCEPT.PDE text file in the ;original Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;

@@Disband
When a friendly unit becomes obsolete, costs too much to maintain, or causes unhappiness among your population, you might want to eliminate the unit. To eliminate a unit, order it to disband by holding down the shift key and pressing "D", or by selecting "Disband" from the Orders menu. Once disbanded, the unit is permanently removed from the game.

When a unit is disbanded inside a friendly city, half of the unit's production cost in Shields is added to the production of whatever unit, Improvement, or Wonder is currently under production in the city.

@@Fortify
Roman legions on campaign halted their march early enough each evening to build a completely fortified camp for the night. They had learned the value of defensive fortifications when under attack. Where possible, it was the standard practice of most armies to build defensive works of some type whenever expecting an attack. Fortified defenders had their fighting strength multiplied, making it much harder to defeat them.

Ground units can be ordered to fortify by pressing the "F" key, or by selecting "Fortify" from the Orders menu. The defensive value of fortified units is increased by 50 percent.

@@Fortress
Once your civilization has discovered Construction, Settlers and Engineers have the ability to construct fortresses. Fortresses can be utilized to defend city perimeters and to block key points of access from enemy armies. A properly manned fortress can provide an effective defense by doubling the defensive strength of all units stationed within. Unlike normal combat, units stacked within a fortress defend and are destroyed one at a time in battle, rather than being destroyed simultaneously. Fortresses themselves do not suffer damage in the attack.

Settlers and Engineers can construct fortresses by pressing the "F" key, or choosing the Build Fortress command from the Orders menu. Units within a fortress have their defensive strengths doubled. Under a Republic, units stationed inside fortresses built within three squares of their home city do not cause unhappiness.

@@Irrigation
When the early farmers moved down from the hills into the valleys of the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates Rivers, they had to develop the technology of irrigation. The freshwater rivers passed through lands essentially barren due to the lack of rainfall. Through irrigation, water could be removed from the rivers and spread on the nearby land, making it suitable for farming.

Irrigation increases Food production in Grasslands, Plains, Deserts, and Hills. Only squares vertically or horizontally adjacent to water (Oceans or Rivers) or another irrigated square can be irrigated. After the discovery of Refrigeration, terrain squares can be double-irrigated to create farmland. Settlers and Engineers can be ordered to irrigate by pressing the "I" key, or by selecting "Build Irrigation" from the Orders menu.

@@Luxuries
The provision of Luxuries for your citizens is indicated by the goblet icons in the Resource Box of the City Display. Each two Luxuries makes one content citizen happy, or one unhappy citizen content. The amount of Luxuries a city produces is mainly determined by the percentage of Trade you have allocated to Luxuries. This can be adjusted using the "Change Tax Rate" command on the Kingdom menu. A city's Luxuries can also be increased by building certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World, and by converting citizens into Entertainers.

@@Mining
Early civilizations had little difficulty locating nearly pure deposits of useful metals, such as gold, silver, and copper, lying exposed on the Earth's surface. As time passed, the surface deposits were exhausted, and people began digging into the ground to look for more. Mining and excavation for metals and other valuable materials continues today.

Mining increases the Shield production of Deserts and Mountains by one, and increases the Shield production of Hills by 3. Settlers and Engineers can be ordered to dig mines by pressing the "M" key, or by choosing the "Build Mine" command from the Orders menu.

@@Pillage
The terrain improvements built by other civilizations (irrigation, mines, roads, etc.) can be destroyed by moving a unit into the improved terrain square and ordering the unit to pillage. This reduces the production value of the land, and forces your enemy to re-develop the terrain.

Units can be ordered to pillage by holding down the shift key and pressing "P", or by choosing the "Pillage" command from the Orders menu. The unit must be ordered to pillage once for each of the terrain improvements you want to destroy. A fully developed terrain square (farmland with a railroad, for example) must be pillaged four times in order to remove all improvements.

@@Pollution
Pollution is most commonly caused by the excessive production of Shields in a city; however, it may also be caused by large city populations (after the discovery of the Automobile), nuclear attacks, or the meltdown of a Nuclear Plant. When a city poses a potential pollution problem, skulls on yellow triangles appear in the Information Box of the City Display. The more skulls a city generates, the higher the city's chance of polluting a terrain square within the city radius each turn. When world pollution reaches sufficiently critical levels, there is a chance that global warming can occur.

Pollution can be cleaned up by moving Settlers or Engineers into the polluted square and pressing the "P" key, or choosing the "Clean Up Pollution" command from the Orders menu. Pollution production of cities can be reduced through the construction of certain City Improvements, or by reducing the city's Shield production.

@@Railroads
Railroads revolutionized transportation by providing a relatively cheap and fast method of moving people, raw materials, finished goods, and troops over great distances. Not only did they support and encourage industrial growth by dramatically reducing transport time and costs, they also spurred technological research. Railroads were among the first great industrial corporations.

Railroads can be built by Settlers and Engineers after the discovery of the Railroad. They are constructed by moving onto terrain containing a road, and pressing the "R" key, or by selecting the "Build Railroad" command from the Orders menu. Units moving along a railroad expend no movement points. Railroads increase Shield and Trade production by 50 percent (rounded down).

@@Roads
A network of good quality roads improves travel between cities. Roads were important to ancient civilizations for trade and the movement of troops. As technology grew, roads were improved. Modern, paved roads are passable in almost any type of weather, and can be traversed much more quickly than dirt roads.

Roads can be built by Settlers and Engineers by pressing the "R" key, or by selecting the "Build Road" command from the Orders menu. Roads can be built in any terrain except Oceans; however, they cannot be built in a River square until the discovery of Bridge Building. Units moving along roads expend only one third of a movement point per square, regardless of terrain type. Roads also increase the amount of Trade produced by Deserts, Plains, and Grasslands.

@@Science
The amount of scientific research contributed by a city is indicated by the beaker icons shown in the Resource Chart of the City Display. At the start of each turn, the science output of each city is added to the research project currently in progress, eventually resulting in the discovery of a new Civilization Advance. The more beakers each city produces, the faster new Advances are discovered. The amount of science produced by your civilization is primarily determined by the amount of incoming Trade you have allocated to science. This percentage can be adjusted by selecting the "Change Tax Rate" command on the Kingdom menu.

The science output of individual cities and your civilization as a whole can also be increased by building certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World, or by converting citizens into Scientists.

@@Sentry
Units ordered to go on sentry duty appear as gray silhouettes. These units are removed from the movement queue, and remain on sentry duty until another unit moves into their sight range or until they are manually reactivated. Units on sentry duty inside a city are automatically loaded onto ships (up to the ship's unit carrying capacity) when the ship leaves the city.

Units are placed on sentry duty by pressing the "S" key, or by choosing the "Sentry" option on the Orders menu. Damaged units placed on sentry inside a city become active when they have been completely repaired.

@@Shields
The production of raw materials by your cities is represented by shield icons. Thus, raw materials are commonly referred to as "Shields". The number of Shields produced by each city is displayed in the Resource Chart of the City Display. Shields are used to support units. Each unit might, depending on government type and other circumstances, require that its home city expend one Shield per turn to support the unit. Excess Shields not used to support units are used for the production of City Improvements, Wonders of the World, and new units.

Shield production largely depends on the type of terrain surrounding the city. In most circumstances, Shield production of a city can be increased through the construction of certain Improvements and Wonders. The construction of mines also improves Shield production in certain types of terrain.

@@Specialists
The citizen icons displayed in the Population Roster of the City Display represent the city's work force. Each citizen added to the roster is automatically put to work developing one of the terrain squares within the city radius. In certain situations it may become necessary to remove a citizen from terrain production in order to perform a specific task. Citizens so removed are called specialists. There are three types of specialist, each of which increases one of the three components of Trade produced by a city. Entertainers increase Luxuries, Tax Men increase Taxes, and Scientists increase Science production.

To create a specialist, click on any production square in the City Map. The production icons disappear from the square, and an Entertainer appears in the Population Roster. To create a Tax Man, click the Entertainer icon once. To create a Scientist, first create a Tax Man, then click the Tax Man icon once. Cities must be size five or larger to support Tax Men and Scientists.

@@Taxes
The Taxes collected by a city are indicated by gold coin icons in the Resource Chart of the City Display. Taxes are used primarily to pay the maintenance cost of City Improvements each turn. Any tax revenues not used for maintenance of Improvements are added to your treasury. The amount of Taxes generated by the city is primarily determined by the amount of incoming Trade you have allocated to Taxes. This can be adjusted by selecting the "Change Tax Rate" option from the Kingdom menu.

Tax revenues can also be increased through the construction of certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World, or by converting citizens into Tax Men.

@@Trade
Trade represents more than just the exchange of goods and cash between cities and civilizations. Trade also represents the exchange of knowledge and ideas, and the recreational travel and activities of the citizens of your civilization. The total amount of Trade produced by each city is represented by double-arrow icons displayed in the Resource Chart of the City Display. Trade is then broken down into three separate components: Taxes, Luxuries, and Science. The amount of Trade allocated to each of these areas is controlled by selecting the "Change Tax Rate" option on the Kingdom menu.

Trade can be increased through the construction of certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World. It can also be increased through terrain improvements, and through the establishment of trade routes.

@@Trade Routes
Trade routes are established by moving a Caravan or Freight unit into a city at least ten squares from the unit's home city. You receive an immediate cash payment on the turn that the route is established. On each ensuing turn, each city receives a Trade bonus for as long as the trade route exists. The farther apart the two cities are, the more valuable the trade route. Trade routes established with cities of a rival civilization tend to be more profitable than those established between friendly cities. Each city may have up to three active trade routes at any time.

When using the Advanced Trade rules, the value of a trade route is also affected by the type of goods traded. When trading a commodity that is demanded by the destination city, the trade route is much more profitable.

@@Veteran Units
During the American Civil War, soldiers who had never been in battle were said to have "seen the elephant" after being under fire for the first time. Afterward, they were considered veterans. History shows that well-trained, veteran soldiers are much more likely to survive a battle than inexperienced troops.

Units have a 50 percent chance of becoming Veterans each time they survive a combat encounter. Cities with a Barracks Improvement automatically produce Veteran units, as do all cities under the influence of the Sun Tzu's War Academy Wonder. The attack and defense factors of Veteran units is increased by 50 percent.

@@Corruption and Waste
As your civilization grows, you might notice that some of your cities are losing some of their Trade and Shields to corruption and waste. Corruption is Trade income that is lost to theft, embezzlement, and other illegal practices. Waste is Shield production that is lost to inefficiency. The farther a city is from your capital, the more corruption and waste it experiences. The amount of corruption and waste is also affected by the system of government you are using.
 
Corruption and waste, if left unchecked, can significantly slow the development of your civilization. Both corruption and waste can be reduced by 50 percent by building a Courthouse in the city experiencing the problem. The best solution, however, is to switch your system of government to a more advanced form. The more advanced the government, the less corruption and waste you experience. Communism and Democracy alleviate this problem altogether.

@@Unhappiness Due to Civ Size
Once you have built a certain number of cities, your citizens start to worry about your ability to effectively govern your civilization. When this occurs, additional unhappy citizens appear in each city.

The number of cities you can build before causing additional unhappiness is based on a number of factors, including game difficulty level and government type. The number of cities is higher for more advanced governments and lower levels of difficulty.

@@Combat Damage
It is now possible for units to be damaged as a result of combat. In each successful attack, a unit inflicts an amount of damage equal to its Firepower rating. The amount of damage a unit can sustain before it is destroyed is determined by multiplying the unit's Hit Point rating by ten.

The approximate amount of damage a unit has sustained can be determined by the length and color of the unit's damage bar (the colored bar at the top of the unit's shield symbol). A green bar indicates that the unit has lost from 0 to 33 percent of its Hit Points, a yellow bar shows that the unit has lost from 34 to 66 percent, and a red bar indicates that it has lost 67 percent or more.

Damage also affects the movement of a unit. The percentage of movement lost is equivalent to the percentage of Hit Points lost. Sea units can never have their movement reduced below two. The movement of air units is not affected by damage.

@@Transforming Terrain
In addition to the changes to Terrain that can be made through irrigation and mining, Engineers are able to transform map squares into a radically different Terrain types by using the "Transform" command on the Orders menu. Terrain transformation is particularly useful if the Terrain surrounding a city doesn't produce sufficient resources.

See the Civilopedia entries for each Terrain type for the results of Engineer transformation.

@@Airbases
After the discovery of Radio, your Settlers and Engineers have the ability to construct Airbases. Airbases act as remote refueling stations for Fighters, Bombers, Stealth Fighters, and Stealth Bombers. Strategically placed Airbases effectively extend the range of these units, allowing them to operate farther from friendly cities and Carriers.

To build an Airbase, chose the "Airbase" command from the Orders menu, or press the "e" key.

@@Airlift
After the discovery of Combined Arms, you have the ability to perform Airlift operations between your cities. Airlifting allows you to move units instantly over great distances. In order to Airlift a unit between two cities, both cities must have an Airport.

To Airlift a unit, move the unit into a city with an Airport and choose "Airlift" from the Orders menu, or press the "l" key. A menu of possible destinations appears. Choose the destination city from the menu, and the unit is instantly transported to that city. The unit becomes available for use on the following turn.

@@City Squares
;Translation Note: This refers to the map squares occupied by cities, not "Town Squares".
The resources utilized by a city are not only generated in the squares surrounding the city: they are also generated by the city square itself. The city square generates all the resources normally produced by the Terrain type on which the city is built. In addition, the Terrain square occupied by the city is improved to the maximum extent possible. The city square automatically contains a road, which is upgraded to a railroad when the Railroad Advance is discovered. The city square is also automatically irrigated or mined, depending on the type of terrain. Finally, if the city is built on Terrain that normally produces no Shields, one Shield is automatically added to the other resources generated in the city square. These enhancements ensure that the city square produces the maximum amount of resources possible.


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