;
;
;Ulitimate Civ II - Civilopedia Descriptions Text File -- Copyright (c) 1997 MicroProse Software, Inc. 
;
;This file contains the descriptions of all the Civilization Advances, City Improvements, Wonders of
;the World, Units, and Game Concepts displayed in the Civilopedia. It is designed to be adaptable to
;conform to customized scenarios by the replacing existing text with scenario-specific text.
;
;PLEASE MAKE A COPY OF THE ORIGINAL TEXT FILE BEFORE YOU MAKE ANY CHANGES!
;
;
;

@ADVANCE_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: This section consists (verbatim) of the following files from the original Civilopedia, ;strung together to make one contiguous section: ADVANC1.PDE, ADVANC2.PDE, ADVANC3.PDE,
;and ADVANC4.PDE. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;
; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,
; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that
; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Amphibious Warfare will be the 55'th (remember,
; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.
; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.
; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.
;
@@ADVANCE_INDEX
0,			; Advanced Flight
1,			; Alphabet
54,			; Amphibious Warfare
2,			; Astronomy
3,			; Atomic Theory
4,			; Automobile
5,			; Banking
6,			; Bridge Building
7,			; Bronze Working
8,			; Ceremonial Burial
9,			; Chemistry
10,			; Chivalry
11,			; Code of Laws
55,			; Combined Arms
12,			; Combustion
13,			; Communism
14,			; Computers
15,			; Conscription
16,			; Construction
17,			; The Corporation
18,			; Currency
19,			; Democracy
56,			; Economics
20,			; Electricity
21,			; Electronics
22,			; Engineering
57,			; Environmentalism
58,			; Espionage
23,			; Explosives
24,			; Feudalism
25,			; Flight
59,			; Fundamentalism
26,			; Fusion Power
27,			; Genetic Engineering
60,			; Guerrilla Warfare
79,			; Gunpowder
80,			; Horseback Riding
81,			; Industrialization
82,			; Invention
83,			; Iron Working
28,			; Labor Union
61,			; The Laser
62,			; Leadership
29,			; Literacy
63,			; Machine Tools
30,			; Magnetism
31,			; Map Making
32,			; Masonry
33,			; Mass Production
34,			; Mathematics
35,			; Medicine
36,			; Metallurgy
64,			; Miniaturization
65,			; Mobile Warfare
37,			; Monarchy
66,			; Monotheism
38,			; Mysticism
39,			; Navigation
40,			; Nuclear Fission
41,			; Nuclear Power
42,			; Philosophy
43,			; Physics
44,			; Plastics
-1,			; Plumbing
68,			; Polytheism
45,			; Pottery
69,			; Radio
46,			; Railroad
47,			; Recycling
48,			; Refining
70,			; Refrigeration
49,			; The Republic
50,			; Robotics
51,			; Rocketry
71,			; Sanitation
72,			; Seafaring
52,			; Space Flight
73,			; Stealth
53,			; Steam Engine
84,			; Steel
85,			; Superconductor
74,			; Tactics
75,			; Theology
86,			; Theory of Gravity
87,			; Trade
88,			; University
76,			; Warrior Code
77,			; The Wheel
78,			; Writing
67,			; Future Technology
-1,			; User Def Tech A
-1,			; User Def Tech B
-1,			; User Def Tech C
-1,			; Extra Advance 1
-1,			; Extra Advance 2
-1,			; Extra Advance 3
-1,			; Extra Advance 4
-1,			; Extra Advance 5
-1,			; Extra Advance 6
-1,			; Extra Advance 7
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Advanced Flight
From their capital of Cirta, the Numidians ruled the African plains. They provided the best light cavalry of the time and the Romans only managed to defeat Hannibal at Zama after they enlisted the support of the Numidian prince Massinisa. In fact the potency of their cavalry was such that only he who controlled them would win a north African war. Later when the Numidians rebelled against the Romans many a Roman general returned to Rome in disgrace for not being able to defeat them.  
 
@@Alphabet
The Greeks were pioneers in the area of education. They were the first to teach medical sciences, mathematics, philosophy and music in their schools. Later, after the conquests of Alexander the Great, Greek ideas and sciences spread all over the world. During the Hellenistic era, Hellenic education became the basis of teachings in all civilized nations.  

@@Astronomy
Philip the second, father of Alexander the Great, first introduced profesionalism in the armed forces in the 4th century BC. Conscription was not obligatory, rates of pay were high, training and uniforms were standardised and the Macedonian war machine started operating scientifically with specialized units of engineers, scouts and officer schools. Philip's, and later Alexander's, tremendous success in battle proved to the Hellenic world the advantages of fielding a "professional army" and the new system was soon adopted by foes and allies alike.

@@Atomic Theory
The Phoenicians were the first to establish colonies in southern Spain, or Iberia as it was then called. These colonies were inherited by the Carthaginians but were lost to Iberian tribes after the First Punic war. A subsequent re-colonisation of the Iberian peninsula was launched and after years of campaigning Carthaginian authority was established up to the Ebro river in the North and Numantia to the east. Iberian mercenaries provided the manpower for both the Carthaginian army and navy and the numerous gold and silver mines in the area revived a war wrecked economy.

@@Automobile
The earliest attempts at producing a self-propelled vehicle date back to the late 1770s. These early vehicles used bulky steam engines for power. Despite constant improvements, the steam engine ultimately proved impractical for small vehicles. The development of the internal combustion engine in the late 1800s provided a small but powerful replacement for steam engines, and were able to achieve much higher speeds. The first practical automobiles were developed in the late 19th century, by automotive pioneers in France, Germany, and the United States. By the 1920s, a number of automotive manufacturing companies were operating in the U.S., including Ford and General Motors. By 1980, more than 300 million cars and 85 million trucks were in operation throughout the world. The popularity of the automobile has led to massive improvements in the highway systems in most industrialized countries. Unfortunately, automobiles are also one of the primary sources of air pollution, and have resulted in an all time high demand for petrochemical fuels.

@@Banking


@@Bridge Building
Humans have been constructing crude bridges from the first time they laid logs across a stream or river they needed to cross. Although a brick arch bridge is said to have existed in Babylon in 1800 BC, most bridges of this time period were probably made of wood. The Romans developed bridge building to a degree that it took Western medieval engineers many years to match. Roman bridges were often composed of several stone arches which supported a flat road. Bridges of this type date back to as early as 219 BC. It wasn't until the mid-1800s that bridge designs began to incorporate metal for added strength and permanence. Early truss bridges used wooden trusses bound with iron tie-rods. By 1850, wooden trusses gave way to steel. Modern bridges incorporate designs ranging from concrete and steel arches to steel girder and suspension styles. The development of modern bridges constructed of durable materials was vital to the expansion of the worlds railroad and highway systems.

@@Bronze Working
The first Greek settlers arrived in the Italian penisula around 753BC and founded the colony of Cumae. Since that time the Greek presence in Italy was continiously strengthened and by 735 they started expanding into Sicily. Despite opposition by Etruscan and Carthaginians the Greeks consolidated their position and southern Italy flourished economically. So successful was the Greek rulership of southern Italy and Sicily, that the mainland Greeks called the colonies "Great Greece" or "Magna Graecia" in Italian.  

@@Ceremonial Burial
Groping for an explanation of the world around them, the earliest humans developed the first concepts of religion. Gradually, rites of worship grew to include sacrifices, ceremonies, vigils, symbology, sacred items, and prayer. One significant step in the advance of worship was the ceremonial burial, often a ritual preparation of the deceased's body for the afterlife his or her culture anticipated. The remains of  ceremonial burials offer some of the most detailed information about past civilizations.

@@Chemistry
Ever since the Median wars, Greek military prowess has been recognised and the fighting men of the barren balkan country have served in a variety of armies across the world in return for pay. Carthage being a state based on mercenaries was among the first to employ them. They are mostly sought out for their superb heavy infantry, but it is not uncommon for Hellenes to be hired as light troops or army instructors. Their fine reputation as warriors precedes them and wherever a war is to be found it will surely include Greeks.

@@Chivalry
Chivalry was a code of rules governing the behavior of an aristocratic class of warriors known as knights. First appearing in the 12th century, the rules of chivalry governed not only the knights' behavior in battle, but in their personal lives as well. The chief chivalric virtues of piety, honor, valor, courtesy, chastity, and loyalty represented a fusion of Christian and military morality. A similar code of behavior known as "Bushido" or  "the way of the warrior" governed the behavior of the samurai warriors of ancient Japan. Although the strict practice of chivalry had all but disappeared by the 15th century, the ideals of chivalric behavior became the basis for what is now considered to be gentlemanly conduct.

@@Code of Laws
The earliest tribal civilizations were bonded together by mutual needs and beliefs. These groups were ruled by a tribal chieftain, who acted as an advisor, and enforcer of the will of the gods. No formal laws existed in these early cultures, but fear of the gods and a sense of tribal customs and morality kept order in the tribe. As societies became larger and more diverse, the need arose for established rules of conduct. The earliest known codes of laws existed in Babylon, India, and Palestine. The Twelve Tables of Rome, written in 500 BC, and its successors such as the Justinian Code, were the first codes of law to distinguish between public law, which involves the state, and private law, which concerns disputes between citizens. Roman law was the first formalized written system of laws, and went on to influence many of the legal systems of the modern world.

@@Combustion
The development of the internal combustion was a great advance of the Industrial Age. The forerunner of today's internal combustion engine was built in 1876 by German engineer Nikolaus Otto. Refinements on Otto's design over the next ten years led to more efficient and powerful engines. The internal combustion engine forever changed world transportation. Early automobiles utilizing steam engines had proven to be both under-powered and impractical, but the fuel efficiency and compact size of the internal combustion engine allowed the automotive industry to flourish. Several variations, including the diesel engine designed by Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel, went on to revolutionize propulsion in shipping and other transportation industries.

@@Communism
Communism is a conceptualized system of government in which resources and production facilities are the property of the entire society rather than individuals. In a communist society, labor is shared equally as well, and the benefits of labor are distributed according to need. Under such a system, all people would be equal, without class stratification. Although the basic idea of communism has existed since the time of Plato, modern communism is identified with the system of government described by Karl Marx and Fredrich Engels in the "Communist Manifesto". They believed that capitalistic systems, in which the rich upper class prospered through the exploitation of the powerless lower class, were bound to destroy themselves. At this point, the poor would rebel against their former oppressors and form a classless society. This prophecy has never come true, and countries who have attempted to base their governments on communism have ultimately failed to achieve the utopia described by Marx and Engels.

@@Computers
The greatest city in Sicily and for a time in all of Italy, Syrracuse, was initially founded in 734 BC by Corinthian settlers led by the aristocrat Archias. The original Grecian setlers formed the elite, while the Siculi natives worked the land as an oppressed class. Syracuse has a monarchic tradition and has spent most of its history in civil wars between tyrants and tyrant slayers. Being an extremely rich city-state Syracuse has attracted the envy of many stronger nations: Athenians, Carthaginians and lately Romans. However, the city has always managed to maintain its independance thanks to her almost impregnable walls and powerfull navy.
Hierro II tyrant of Syrracuse wisely allied himself with the Romans in the First Punic war. In fair times and foul, Hierro proved a loyal ally for the Roman Senate.

@@Conscription
Ticinus, Trebia, Trasimene, Cannae. The list of reverses the Romans suffered in the hands of Hannibal is almost endless. The Romans payed with blood for their overconfidence in the battlefield. Although the Roman army had been defeated before, it was the magnitude and rate of Hannibal's victories that stunned them. After lake Trasimene (June 217 BC), where consul Flaminius fell, the Romans decided they had taken enough from Hannibal and refrained from engaging him. In all the Romans lost about 200 000 men in the war against Hannibal, but what hurt them the most was the loss of their pride.

@@Construction
It is true that the original construction techniques were first developed for defensive reasons. Forts and walls had to be erected for the the protection of the societies, and sturdy houses to avoid the harsh effects of weather.However as the science of building became more advanced, various new construction designs appeared. Many of these designs were employed specifically in civil buildings such as Palaces and Libraries. 

@@Corporation
Hellenisation followed behind Alexander's phalanxes, spreading the wonders of civilization to all the corners of the known world. After Alexander mysteriously died in Babylon in 323BC his empire was divided among his generals. With the generals being Greeks, it was only natural that war would erupt. It was an era marked by political turmoil but also by huge cultural advances. The old Greek values had degenerated and blended with Asian customs thus forming a cultural amalgam. New multi-religion pantheons were formed and a new mercantile class rapidly gained influence. In this world Greek civilization flourished. The arts were made into a science, the monuments erected still stand to this day, the scholars pioneered new areas of thought, enlightened rulers patronised the arts and trade was promoted. The relics left by this most productive era are a testament to man's creativity. This civilisation had as its cradle Egypt, flourishing under the benevolent Ptolemeans. The Great Library of Alexandria, built around 300 BC and containing more than 200 000 volumes of manuscripts at the time of Ptolemy's I death, was a point of reference up until its destruction in 641 AD by the Arabs.
Later this world of cultural achievements and turbulent politics was named the Hellenistic world.

@@Currency
The Second Punic War(219-201BC) was an anomaly in the history of warfare. A traditional maritime power (Carthage) clashed with a traditional land power (Roman Confederation). However the roles were reversed: the Romans had total naval superiority while the Carthaginians were invincible on land. It was also a war that revolutionised generalship; Hannibal was the first that understood the benefits of a commander instructing his men from the rear rather than fighting in the front lines, thus being able to adapt his tactics to the needs of the battle as they appeared. It is the author's opinion that the Carthaginians had no chance of wining this war even with Hannibal leading them. Although the Romans suffered catastrophic defeats such as Cannae (70 000 casualities), it didn't seem to affect their endless manpower resources. On the other hand the Punics even after crippling the Roman army at Cannae lacked the strength to take Rome and end the war. Moreover the Carthaginians (namely Hannibal) lacked a clear strategic objective. He invaded Italy, but to what purpose? He brought no siege train with him to capture industrial centers and was operating with an overstreched (and later none at all) line of supply. It seems he was aiming to detach Rome's Italian allies from her, or simply to start the war, keep the legions occupied and hope that his Senate would manage to retake Sicily. In any case it is difficult to judge his strategic thinking because the necessary reinforcements to achieve his aims where forfeited from Carthage. 
In this war a small but invincible force lost not by a head on clash, but by having its strength slowly drained away. Rome employed an indirect approach to the war, aiming to wear down Hannibal by striking at his reinforcement pools. After Cannae the Roman army baricaded itself in fortified cities, cities which Hannibal, lacking siege weapons, was unable to take.Simultaneously they invaded Spain and counterattacked in Sicily. Hannibal's small army was unable to be at all places at once. A side-effect of the Punic war was the eventual clash of phalanx versus legion. When the Romans invaded Greece they met the Macedonians at Cynoscephalae (197BC), finally defeating Philip due to the unmanuevrable nature of the phalangites as opposed to the nimble and adaptable legionaries.

@@The Democracy
Democracy is a ruling system where the citizens have a great deal of control over the actions of the government, either directly or through elected representatives. Democratic governments can be traced back to the city-states of ancient Greece and Rome. Citizens would gather in a public forum, and each one would have the opportunity to speak and vote on issues affecting the community. This direct democracy system was possible due to the relatively small populations of the city-states. Starting in the 17th century, the monarchs of Europe began to be stripped of their absolute power, and by the end of the 19th century the citizens had a strong voice in government in many European nations. Large populations made public forums impractical, so the people elected groups of representatives to carry their views to the ruling powers. Strictly speaking, this type of system more closely resembles a republican system rather than a true democracy. This type of representative democracy is considered the best governing system in the modern world because of the personal and economic freedom enjoyed by the citizens.

@@Electricity
After Publius Cornelius Scipio was bypassed by Hannibal near Marselies he acted as a true Roman- he ordered his brother to take the legions (22 000 foot, 2000 horse, 60 quiqueremes) and head for Spain according to the dictates of the Senate. A decision that altered perhaps the course of the war. Gnaeus was a seasoned veteran and promptly subjucated the area up to Tarraco and rolled over Hanno's force. He was later joined by Publius with 8 000 men. The two brothers wreaked havoc in Spain, not allowing any reinforcements reaching Hannibal until their death at Ilorca and Castullo (211 BC).

EFFECT:
Seeking to limit Carthaginian reinforcements a Roman Consular army (two legions) lands near Emporiae and Tarraco.
The Carthaginians better be prepared. 

@@Electronics
Polybius was born in Megalopolis in Arcadia around 200 BC, and died in 118 BC at the age of 82,after falling from his horse. He is considered by far the most reliable of ancient historians and the main source of information for the Second Punic war. Himself a war veteran and diplomat, was taken hostage after the battle of Pydna (168BC) in Rome, where he had the opportunity to become a very close friend of Scipio Aemilianus (The Scipios had adopted Paulus Aemilius's grandson). He fought in the Third Punic war (149-146 BC) and proved himself a benefactor of his fellow Greeks.
His "Histories" comprised 40 books. Only his first five have survived intact. Books 3-5 deal with events from 219 to 216BC (Cannae). Books 7-30 are a year by year record of the major events that forged Rome into an Empire from 216-164BC. Although his records many times contradict those of Livy, Polybius' grasp of military matters overshades Livy's poetic writing style. Unfortunately Polybius has allowed Scipionic family traditions to dillute his judgement.
"Histories" do not only deal with historical matters. Polybius also indulges in an analysis of Rome's political system, geographical observations and a critique of earlier historical accounts.

@@Engineering
After lake Trasimene (217 BC), the Roman army changed its tactics. From now on the invincible Carthaginians wouldn't be directly engaged but rather slowly exhausted. A sound strategy having in mind that Hannibal's army operating in enemy soil was having extreme difficulties acquiring reinforcements and supplies. However, after the term in office of dictator Fabius Maximus Quintus ended, the Roman consuls decided to again tackle the Punic army. Being again defeated at Cannae, the Romans deemed that they would no longer try to destroy Hannibal, but rather strike at Carthage's resources and criple her ability to wage war. As such they attacked wherever Hannibal was not: Sicily, Spain and Africa.
Hannibal's army soon ran out of manpower, forcing the Senate to recall him from Italy.

@@Explosives
An explosive is a chemical compound or mixture that undergoes rapid combustion and produces heat, gas, and pressure effects. The earliest explosive compound known was gunpowder, which was first used in the13th century, and was the only explosive known for hundreds of years. The first modern explosive, a compound known as nitroglycerin, was discovered in 1846. Compounds similar to nitroglycerin are the most commonly used explosives today. Explosives vary in brisance, or shattering effect, and in their stability under various environmental conditions. Aside from their obvious use in weaponry, explosives are also used in such peaceful applications as rocket propellants and for mining and demolition work.

@@Feudalism
In the unsettled times following the collapse of Charlemagne's Frankish empire, a new social and political system arose in Europe called feudalism. Derived from the concept of monarchy, feudalism was a hierarchical system in which each descending stratum owed allegiance to those above. The king, whose authority was second only to God, granted tracts of land, or fiefs, to his barons. The barons might then grant smaller estates to knights, who swore to protect and serve the baron. The knights, in turn, might then grant fractions of their fiefs to subordinates who would serve the knights. At the bottom of the feudal pyramid were the serfs, who could not own land, and acted essentially as slave laborers who worked the land for their masters. Feudalism began to decline in the 13th century, when standing armies and mercenaries began to fulfill the protective role once served by the vassals and knights.

@@Flight
The Romans plan to invade Africa! Huge forces are prepared in Sicily and almost all of Italy has sent contingents for the campaign. If the Romans succeed in conquering Carthage we will have to sue for peace!

EFFECT:
The Roman senate decides to end the war with one stroke; every available serviceman is dispatched to Africa.

@@Fusion Power
The Celts being the supreme iron workers of their day invented a new type of armour around 300 BC. This "Chain mail", or Lorica Hamata to the Romans, was a flexible armour of interwoven metal links, providing both adequate protection and allowing relative freedom of movement. It was later adopted by the Romans and the Greeks. It had widespread use during the Middle ages.

@@Genetic Engineering
Genetic Engineering involves the manipulation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA contains the genetic "code" which determines the inherited traits of living organisms. By removing a section of an organism's DNA and replacing it with that of another organism, the characteristics of the organism can be altered. Since its inception, genetic engineering has produced a number of important benefits, such as isolating the gene for interferon, a rare substance that may be of great value in the treatment of viral diseases and cancer. Genetic manipulation may someday also provide a cure for  birth defects and inherited diseases. Unfortunately, there are also potential dangers involved in this technology. Genetically engineered diseases, more communicable and virulent than any occurring in nature, could potentially be created in the laboratory by accident or maliciously. Such viruses could be used as a dreadful biological weapon. Domestic and international regulations regarding genetic experimentation exist to prevent such a situation from occurring.

@@Labor Union
At the time of the Punic wars, the Roman army has already undergone major changes since the time of Etruscan occupation. The old hoplite phalanx was disbanded and replaced with the more mobile legion. Conscription has been reformed on a semi-professional basis. Although personal status still plays some part in qualification, much more emphasis is now placed on seniority and experience. Those elligible for service through owing property at a set level are assembled and selected for service. A citizen is liable for service from the age of 17 to 46, but in an emergency this could be extended to 50 or more.
The Roman standard of the time is the manipular Legion. The maniple is a tactical unit within the legion. A legion's normal strength is 4200 foot and 300 horse but can be expanded in times of crisis.The infantry is deployed in three lines, either four or eight deep.The first line consists of 1200 Hastatii, the pick of the young men who are deployed in 10 maniples. The second line comprises older men, the Princeps, also 1200 in number and divided again in 10 maniples. The third line consists of 600 veteran Triarii, again in 10 maniples, forming the last line of defence.The poorest and youngest men are armed as skirmishers (velites) again 1.200 in number. They are asigned to the maniples in equal numbers. Of course, as one would expect of Romans, the legions are supported by an excellent logistics system. The flexibility and effectiveness of the Roman army was proven as they were able to defeat not only the irregular masses of the Gauls, but also the advanced Hellenistic armies and the greatest tactical genius of the era - Hannibal.

@@Literacy
Writing was a powerful new tool for the advancement of knowledge, but, like all tools, it was only useful if employed. Literacy, the ability to read and understand a written language, was originally a skill limited to priests and scribes. Because of this, knowledge was still spread to the masses orally. Eventually, improving systems of education brought literacy to private citizens. Civilizations in which a high percentage of the population was literate had faster technological and economic growth than those where literacy was less common. In the modern world, while industrialized nations such as the U.S. enjoy widespread literacy, undeveloped nations still have illiteracy rates approaching 80 percent of their overall population. Illiteracy severely stunts the development of a country, even more so now than in the ancient world.

@@Magnetism
In the early days of seafaring, sailors operated solely through a process known as "piloting", in which the position and course of the ship was determined by referring to geographical landmarks. The need to stay in view of the shore severely limited the extent of sea voyages. Through experience, sailors learned to apply the science of astronomy to their profession, noting the positions and movement of particular stars. They realized that even when the shore was out of sight, they could steer by certain reliable stars. This crude, yet practical application of astronomy allowed the adventurous to sail into the unknown with a reasonable chance of finding their way. As a result, ship building technology quickly improved, producing larger, more stable ships designed for longer voyages.

@@Map Making
Maps provide a diagrammatic representation of an area, showing terrain features, cities, and other landmarks. The earliest maps were etched clay tablets charting Babylonian lands for the purposes of taxation. Around the same time, the Chinese produced regional maps drawn on silk cloth. In between 600 and 200 BC, the Greeks produced several maps of the known world, including the first map showing a primitive system of latitude and longitude. These early maps were primarily used by traders and merchants. Seamen, who often set their courses based only on the tales brought back by previous voyagers, benefited most from the science of map making.

@@Masonry
The early dwellings of most tribal cultures were built of materials that were readily available and easy to work with, such as bricks of clay and mud. As tribes gave up their nomadic ways and settled the first cities, they soon found that they had a need for more permanent and durable structures. The skill of masonry was developed to fill this need. The earliest stone structures consisted of little more than rocks which were stacked atop one another to form crude walls. Artisans soon began to square off the rocks, forming them into regular shapes and stacking them. These early examples of masonry used no mortar; the weight of the stacked stones provided overall strength and stability. Without the use of mortar and knowledge of architectural techniques, masonry was used primarily for simple structures such as fortifications. However, some examples of early masonry are quite spectacular, including the Great Pyramids in Egypt, which are still standing after thousands of years.

@@Mass Production
The idea of mass production began to take shape along with the factory system. The automation of production greatly increased productivity with a corresponding decrease in price for manufactured goods. In 1913, automobile manufacturer Henry Ford introduced the idea of assembly lines in his automobile plants. Products being built were conveyed from one work station to another along the line.  At each station, a worker expertly repeated a discreet segment of the assembly process. The product then moved to the next station, and so on until the finished product rolled off the end of the line. This innovative combination of specialization of labor and the use of automation revolutionized production of complex goods. Word of Ford's assembly line technique spread quickly, and this production method soon came to be used in most of the industrialized nations of the world.

@@Mathematics
Demetrius "Poliorcetes", a hellenistic general, became famous for his exploits on the field of sieges. His most renowned accomplishment was the siege of Rhodes (304 BC), which although failed, was a marvel of siege innovations.
Sometimes in order to attack fortified harbours, such as the one in Rhodes, a seaborne assault was required. Often, in order to mount huge siege equipment (towers) it was nessesary for two ships to be lashed together thus forming a large enough deck. Great catapults were similary shipped by Macedon (351 BC) and Rome (213 BC - siege of Syracuse).

@@Medicine
Primitive man attributed the onset of serious disease as the influence of the gods, or possession by evil spirits. Over time, however, it was found that such "possessions" could be treated through the use of elixirs made from plant extracts. Methods were also developed to clean and treat wounds, and set fractured bones. The ancient Greeks established the first schools to teach medical sciences circa 500 BC. The texts produced by the students of these schools, most notably Hippocrates, who is considered the father of medicine, based his theories of the human body on observation and reasoning rather than supernatural intervention. Continued study of diseases over the years, combined with the dissection and study of the human body in the 13th century, pointed out flaws in early Greek theories, and led to more accurate medical texts based on detailed analysis rather than conjecture. By the 18th century, the same methods of analysis and observation used by scientists in other fields were applied to the study of medicine. This paved the way for the increasingly effective methods of treatment and surgery that have prevailed over the last 200 years.

@@Metallurgy
The ancient Assyrians were the first to develop sophisticated siege techniques. Their craft of taking walled cities was later passed on to the Medes and Persians and in turn to the Greeks who developed and perfected "siegecraft". The Great Peloponnesian War saw many developments in siege techinques. The Spartan siege of Plataea saw the use of flame throwers, counterwalls, towers, all for the first time. 

@@The Monarchy
Rule by monarchy developed as a logical extension of the absolute rule of tribal chieftains. Many of the earliest monarchs, such as those in ancient Egypt, claimed that they ruled by divine right. In the spread of European monarchy during the Middle Ages, however, rulership was generally conveyed upon a leader who could most effectively raise and command an army. Monarchies are dynastic, with rule of the country passing to the eldest son when the king dies or retires. Monarchs had absolute rule over their subjects, severely limiting the personal and economic freedom of all citizens except for nobility and the rich upper-class. Although monarchies ruled most of Europe for centuries, the unhappiness of lower-class citizens eventually grew intolerable, causing several major revolutions. By the mid-18th century, the power of the European monarchs had been severely limited, paving the way for participatory systems of government.

@@Mysticism
In times of crisis, people are afraid. And when one is afraid he can believe almost anything.Skillful orators or demagogues can easily take advantage of that. Temples and other places of gathering are the usual areas of demagogic activity. It was not uncommon for state paid demagogues to argue for the just cause of a current war so as to damp down discontent.

@@Navigation
Maritime nations usually possesed a standing navy, apart from their land forces. First encountered in Egypt, the warships were used for protection against both hostile navies and roaming pirates. A battle fleet's primary function is to engage enemy invasion forces and defeat them while still seaborne, thus sparing the nation's economy from any devastation an invading army will bring. Total naval superiority could prove the decisive factor in an ancient conflict (as happened with the Punic wars), as the transportation capabilities and strategic striking power offered are tremendous. During the Second Median War, Athens only managed to save herself thanks to her formidable navy. Although the city itself was overun, the populace was evacuated by the ships, which then proceded to annihilate the opposing Persian war fleet.  

@@Nuclear Fission
According to Einstein's theory of relativity, even the smallest bit of matter is equivalent to a tremendous amount of energy. For instance, two pounds of matter, if converted completely into energy, would produce energy equivalent to the explosive force of 22 megatons of high explosives. In 1939, based on German experiments that successfully split the uranium atom, physicists were able to explain the process of nuclear fission.  When a large, unstable atomic nucleus splits (fissions) the result is two or more smaller, more stable nuclei accompanied by the release of tremendous amounts of energy and lingering, deadly radioactivity. The first application of this powerful technology was in warfare. A top-secret research effort in the U.S. known as the Manhattan Project studied the fission process, and eventually produced the first atomic bombs, which were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. These relatively small bombs, the only atomic weapons ever used in a war, each produced an explosion equivalent to more than 20,000 tons of TNT. The nuclear weapons of today are capable of producing explosions thousands of times more powerful.

@@Nuclear Power
In addition to its potential for destruction, the energy released in nuclear fission was seen as a potential source of controlled power generation. By 1944, large-scale nuclear reactors were in operation for the production of plutonium, although the energy produced by these reactors was not used. Following World War II, increased efforts were turned toward the extensive use of nuclear power to produce electricity. Nuclear power plants use the radiant energy of a controlled nuclear reaction to heat water, converting it to steam to spin turbines that generate electricity. The major drawback to nuclear fission is the lack of a safe means of disposal for the waste produced by the reaction, which retains its lethal radioactivity for hundreds of years. Another hazard is the possibility of a malfunction in the reactor that could lead to a meltdown of the core. Despite massive safety precautions, human error and equipment failures can lead to devastating accidents such as the explosion at Chernobyl in 1986, in which at least 30 people were killed and thousands lost their homes and face possible long-term illness after exposure to near-lethal doses of radiation. Because of growing public concern, the development of new nuclear power plants has slowed as scientists search for viable solutions to these problems.

@@Philosophy
The term philosophy comes from a Greek term meaning "love of wisdom." In ancient Greece, literacy and an interest in the natural world were common in a burgeoning upper class. In their leisure time, these people contemplated principles of thinking and being, logic and mathematics, and the natures of reality and existence. In ancient times, the study of philosophy was indistinguishable from the study of science, and many of the theories formulated by the early philosophers became the basis for studies in the fields of astronomy, medicine, chemistry, and physics. The teachings and writings of the ancient philosophers of Greece and the Orient also, in part, laid the groundwork for many of the world's oldest organized religions.

@@Physics
Physics is the study of the many forms of matter and energy and of the way they interact with themselves and each other. A number of ancient races made observations about certain aspects of physics, such as planetary motion, but were unable to develop theories as to the reasons for these motions. Some of the earliest applications of physics were by the Greek mathematician Archemedes, who applied physics to create such devices as levers and screws. It was not until the 17th century that experimental methods and scientific measuring devices led to a true understanding of many fundamental physical laws. Early scientists such as Johannes Kepler and Sir Isaac Newton began to disprove the theories of the ancient Greek philosophers and scientifically prove their theories concerning the laws of physics. Discoveries in physics rarely have direct application, however they do provide a basic understanding of the laws governing the universe, thus forming the basis for practical advances in technology.

@@Plastics
One of the spin-offs of researching more efficient ways to refine crude oil was the invention of plastics,  organic polymer materials that retain their strength when molded into almost any shape. Starting in the 1920s, a flurry of research into the nature and fabrication of plastics resulted in widespread developments in the field, including the formulation of Plexiglas and nylon in the late 1930s. The boom in plastics research and development continued into and after World War II. Plastics were quickly adopted as cheap, sturdy substitutes for more traditional materials such as glass, rubber, and silk. It seemed that plastics were one of the most practical achievements of the Industrial Age. Despite their usefulness, plastics have proven to be an environmental hazard, since most plastics are not biodegradable,and they are therefore very difficult to dispose of. The significant pollution problem posed by plastics has been partially alleviated through the widespread implementation of recycling programs.

@@Pottery
The invention of pottery was essential to the development of agricultural societies. To get the most out of seasonal crops and domesticated animals, a tribe needed sturdy, waterproof containers in which to store and protect surplus food. The discoveries of the properties of clay, the invention of the kiln, and the potter's wheel made it possible to build such containers. The earliest examples of Western pottery date back to as early as 6500 BC. Most of the examples from this period were strictly utilitarian. Although use continued to be primarily practical, decorative pottery soon became a ritualistic and aesthetic art form in cultures all over the world. Some of the most impressive examples of artistic pottery come from the pre-Columbian cultures of South America, and from the Ming dynasty in 14th century China.

@@Railroad
The predecessors to modern railroads were wagonways, which were constructed in England starting in the 16th century. Wagonways were roads of parallel planks upon which coal wagons were pulled by horses at a greater speed than would have been possible on dirt roads. Wagonways were gradually improved by adding cross-ties and iron strips to reinforce the track. Eventually, the planks became metal rails, and evolved into the type of rails used on today's railroads by the start of the 19th century. Soon after the steam locomotive was introduced in 1829, it replaced horse-drawn wagons, giving birth to the railroad. Originally developed in Britain and the eastern United States as a method of hauling heavy mining ores and freight, railroads outshone canals in their ability to operate across any ground and in nearly any weather. When railroads started carrying passengers as well as goods, the potential for safe, fast,  inexpensive transport became clear. Railroads led to a dramatic increase in the amount of cargo,  passengers, news, and troops that could be moved quickly over great distances.

@@Recycling
Carthage is ruled by a Senate. The Senate in turn is ruled by various powerful families or factions. One such family are the Barcas. Militant and democratic, the Barcas are the main champions of the war with Rome. Unfortunately the African Senate operates not according to common interest, but according to the necesities of the Carthaginian power struggle. As such, the event of a war with Rome was greeted with mixed feelings in the Senate and prosecuted with even less vigour. Although the Barca brothers are away fighting the Romans they still command much influence on the Senate. The oligarchic Senators fear that Hannibal's continuous successes will enhance the prestige of the democratic Barca family and are reluctant to sent aid to the beleguered army in Italy. If the Senators can be swayed to see things the Barca way, the fortunes of this war might well turn. 

@@Refining
When the demand for oil-based fuels for lighting and other purposes began to soar in the 19th century, scientists began searching for a way to make use of crude oil. This research led to techniques in which crude oil was broken down, or refined, into a number of different fuels, including kerosene and gasoline. As consumer demand continued to increase, commercial refineries were set up to purify crude oil. The new petroleum products produced as a result of the development and perfection of the refining process led to the use of oil-based fuels in many consumer and industrial applications. These include the use of gasoline to power automobiles, and the use of oil for heating and for the generation of electrical power.

@@The Republic
The republic is a system of government in which the citizens appoint, by popular vote, a head of state and officials to represent the views of the general public. The concept of the republic first appeared in ancient Rome, where local provinces sent elected representatives to the Senate, which governed all Roman lands. Both the head of state and the local representatives in a republic are elected; no one is granted a position by birth or divine right. Republican governments are similar in some ways to democracies, in that they offer a great deal of personal, financial, and political freedom to their citizens. The main difference between the two systems is that a true democracy allows the participation of every voting citizen in any and all political matters, whereas in a republic, the views and opinions of the people are represented by a body of elected officials. Although an effective system, personal agendas of political representatives might act to decrease the effectiveness in representing the views of the people. Due to human nature, corruption is fairly common in a republican government.

@@Robotics
Sicily was Carthage's most prized overseas posession. A continuous struggle of Punics versus Greeks for the control of Sicily mark Carthage's early history. When Sicily was lost after the first Punic war, the Carthaginians lost not only an economic powerhouse but also their pride. The loss of the island remained a source of grieveance among the citizens for a generation. Later, after Hannibal had crushed the Legions at Cannae, he sent a letter to the Senate, along with his brother Mago, to inform them of the military situation and propose "that it is time we take back Sicily as the national honour demands!".

EFFECT:
By allocating some of her resources on the Sicilian war theater, Carthage sends her agents (with bags full of gold of course) in the island to sow discord and stiffen the wavering loyality of the Greek cities.

@@Rocketry
After the loss of her overseas posessions in the first Punic war, Carthage started empire building in Spain, a land rich in resources and manpower. When Hannibal launched his campaign in 218, he was deeply worried that the Romans might field an army in Spain before he could reach Italy. They certainly had the ability to do so due to their absolute naval superiority. He thus took measures to ensure the safety of Iberia. He left his brother Hasdrubal with 12 150 infantry, 500 Balearic Slingers, 2550 cavalry and 21 elephants to defend the province. Before reaching the Rhone he left general Hanno north of the Ebro to safeguard the roads from Spain to Gaul with 10 000 foot and 1000 horse. Unfortunately when the Scipios invaded these forces were decimated turning Spain into a major war theatre, thus limiting the pool of Hannibal's reinforcements. As if the Roman threat wasn't enough the province is still inhabited by unpacified Iberian tribes.

EFFECT:
By focusing on the Iberian war theater the high command dispatches general Hasdrubal Gisgo with supplies and reinforcements to the provincial capital of Carthago Nova or the nearest available coastal city.     

@@Space Flight
Hannibal's strategical (as opposed to his tactical) thinking has caused much critisism among scholars. One thing that cannot be overlooked though is the brilliance of his move against Italy. Hannibal had realised that another war against the Romans must take place not in Spain, but in Italy itself. A war in Spain could offer the Carthaginians little, if won, and cost them everything if lost. An offensive in Italy however would throw the Romans off balance and transfer the burdens of war on the Roman economy. With this in mind Hannibal crossed the alps in the spring of 218 into the Italian penisula. Hannibal's objective after reaching Roman territory however is unclear. Inspite inflicting a stunning series of defeats on the Romans he had brought no siege train with him to capture Rome; instead he was forced to head for southern Italy to seek allies and reinforcements among the Greek cities.

EFFECT:
By yielding at last to Hannibal's pleas for reinforcements the Carthaginian Senate sends African troops and supplies to southern Italy. Taking into account the total superiority of the Roman navy these reinforcements can only arrive in limited numbers. It is strongly advised that a strong coastal base, such as Heracleia or Metapontum is first secured by the Punic army. 

@@Steam Engine
The Hellenes or Greeks, although only compelled to form a united state by Philip's phalanxes, were always conscious of their common heritage. Common language, blood and religion were essential for the moulding of a strong racial identity. Despite Macedonian and Roman conquests, the Hellenes always maintained their notion of being unique and superior to barbarians. Constant squabling has made Hellas a prime target for invasion and many times the Greeks themselves have called foreign powers to champion their interests against fellow Greeks. Sadly the Hellenes, despite providing the whole world with a common civilization basis were incapable of uniting themselves.

@@Amphibious Warfare
The destiny of the world is for the Gods to know. Empires rise and fall, great monuments are erected and destroyed but the achievements of great men pass into eternity! And this is Hannibal's destiny......

@@Combined Arms
Advanced flight technology, combined with the principles of amphibious warfare and mobile warfare, represent the potential for a devastating attack force. Combined air, sea, and ground assaults played a vital role in World War II. The Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944 represented such an attack. Bombers and fighters were deployed over the target area to claim the skies, while naval vessels sat off the coast and bombarded the beach head. Transports then landed troops and equipment on the beach to begin a ground assault. Modern advances make today's combined assaults even more effective. Naval vessels and stealth aircraft equipped with cruise missiles and smart bombs soften enemy resistance before a ground assault. Helicopters drop and retrieve soldiers behind enemy lines in places not accessible to fixed-wing aircraft. Powerful armored tanks, such as the M1, can be quickly deployed, moving at speeds up to 60 miles per hour. Finally, the combined assault is coordinated through a network of sophisticated communication, targeting, and detection devices, allowing more precise deployment of forces than previously possible in history.

@@Economics
All ancient cities possesed an acropolis, the highest point that dominated the town, used mainly for defence. A heritage of the early bronze era, when the only defence available was the occupation of a higher ground, acropolises now encompass (as the most defensible part of the city) temples and the state treasury. 
In many instances in Hannibal's war the occupation of the Acropolis was enough to forfeit any claim of victory from the besieger. The most famous example is the siege of Taras (211 BC) where the Roman garrison withdrew to the impregnable Acropolis after the Punic troops stormed the city. The acropolis also covered the Harbour entrance thus neutralizing the powerful Tarentine fleet. Unable to capture the Acropolis citadel, Hannibal lost valuable time and resources, in what is considered the turning point of the war.

@@Environmentalism
For centuries, human society has taken the gifts of nature for granted. As civilization grew, humans spread out across the face of the planet, taking what they needed from the land and producing more and more waste materials with little regard for the future. In the late 1960's, a growing number of people became concerned about the growing problems of pollution and the destruction of natural habitats. This movement led to the formation of groups like the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The EPA's aim is to reduce all types of pollution. To this end, the agency has imposed strict laws and guidelines concerning the disposal of hazardous materials, set clean water standards, and studied more effective techniques of solid waste disposal. The primary goal of the environmental movement as a whole is to make sure that the environment is safe and intact for future generations to enjoy.

@@Espionage
The struggle of political ideas in the ancient world, as we had in our times the struggle between communism and democracy, was one between democracy and oligarchy. However these ideas didn't nessesarily reflect the way a state was governed. There could be an oligarchic Senate (such as in Carthage) or a democratic autocracy (such as in Pergamum). Traditionally the Romans supported the oligarchic parties in Italy while the Punics gave their support to the popular party. The Barca's family reputation as democrats earned Hannibal many sympathisers in his Italian campaign. The general himself of course was skillfully cultivating his "democratic profile" and many a city with democratic senators threw open its city gates to him.

@@Fundamentalism
The Carthaginian Senate has long proven her indifference for the outcome of any war that doesn't affect the priviliges of the upper class. Their lack of energy has already cost Carthage Sicily, Corsica and Sardinia, all lost in the first Punic war. As if this wasn't enough they see Hannibal Barca's success with considerable envy. It is time the people get rid of these corupt old men!
Although a coup against the Senate didn't historically occur during the second Punic war (or in any other period of Carthage's history for that matter) it was a likehood as the mismanagement of the Punic war effort by the Senators continued. It seems that the rulers of Carthage, far away from the theaters of war, had a rather vague idea of the overall strategic situation.

@@Guerrilla Warfare
In extreme situations, usually spawned by an oppressive or militaristic system of government, small groups of citizens have been known to form armed factions. In many cases, these splinter groups lack the numbers, finances, and armament to start a full-scale revolution. Instead, they adopt a practice of undermining governmental authority through covert military operations. These operations usually take the form of hit-and-run raids, where rebel soldiers launch a surprise attack on an enemy target, then disappear into hiding, only to strike again at some other time and place. Such tactics, known as guerrilla warfare, seldom have any lasting effect individually. However, over many years, guerrilla factions can become a serious threat to governmental authority if the rebels cannot be caught and suppressed. Tactics of this sort were used to great effect by the partisan forces in Nazi-occupied Europe during World War II.

@@The Laser
Roman battle experience up until the Second Punic War was against Celts, Italians and Greeks -foes fighting in classic "set piece battles" style. Facing Hannibal however they met an opponent unwilling to compromise with the rules of fighting of his time. Himself having learnt the arts of war in guerilla campaigns in Iberia, he adapted and employed the unorthodox methods encountered there to the needs of a large army facing opponents in pitched combats. The Romans were in for a huge surprise. Time after time their conventional armies were mauled by the Carthaginian. After Cannae (216BC) the morale of the Roman army had reached it's nadir. The troops then underwent a radical training programme so as to prepare for future engangements against the Punic general.Emphasis was given to light troop tactics and anti cavalry dogmas. Encouraged by the improved perfomance of the Roman troops the Senate felt it was time to again take the field.

@@Leadership
Through the Middle Ages, military forces were only assembled as needed, and continued to serve until the current conflict had ended. Though certain leaders had proven to be adept and occasionally brilliant in their methods, the short periods for which they served made their fame short-lived. As regular armies became more prevalent, military leaders had the opportunity to distinguish themselves through the formulation of brilliant military tactics. The tactics of leaders such as these would be studied by successive generations, and modified to fit new situations up to and including the present day.

@@Machine Tools
It is clear that the Second Punic War was waged half heartedly by the Carthaginians. It seems that the Senate considered itself an unwilling participant of Hannibal's war. Reinforcements and supplies were sent at a slow rate, no attempt was made to reclaim control of the seas and the deteriorating situation in Spain was neglected. However as long as Hannibal could field an effective army under him, victory was still a posibility. A posibility that was eliminated at Metaurus when much needed reinforcements for Hannibal were intercepted by the Romans. Had the Carthaginian Senate pledged her full support for the war and therefore supplied Hannibal with the means nessesary to wage it, the Carthaginians might have very well emerged victorious.
 
@@Miniaturization
Early radios and other electronic devices relied on vacuum tube technology. Because the tubes took up a great deal of space, the devices that utilized them tended to be very bulky and cumbersome. In the late 1940's, the development of the transistor provided a compact alternative to vacuum tubes. Transistors were capable of achieving the same level of power amplification achieved by tubes while taking up much less space, and using only a fraction of the power. Starting in the 1960's, the integrated circuit provided still another level of miniaturization. An integrated circuit the size of a transistor could perform the function of 20 transistors. Today, the microprocessor, a modern refinement of the original integrated circuits, can incorporate the functions of several complete printed circuit boards into a single, low-power consumption chip less than two inches square, allowing for the construction of hand-held computers with more computing power than the huge mainframes used in the 70's and 80's.

@@Mobile Warfare
The idea of using heavy weapons on the battlefield dates back to the 15th century when heavy cannons were mounted on wheels and towed into battle by horses. This first use of mobile artillery, devastatingly effective in its time, pales in comparison to the tactics used in 20th century armored warfare. Tanks were first used during World War I. A successful assault utilizing 400 tanks in November 1917, resulting in the capture of 8000 enemy troops and 100 guns near Cambrai, paved the way for a significant shift in battlefield tactics. During World War II, armored vehicles were used extensively throughout Europe and Africa by both Allied and Axis powers. The might and mobility of an armored assault was more than a match for countries who lacked proper defenses against such an attack. Armored warfare still plays an important role in battlefield tactics. This was proven in the Persian Gulf war, where the M1 Abrams tank proved to be a vital component of the ground assault force in Kuwait.

@@Monotheism
The science and art of building and construction in masonry is what generally the term architecture refers to. One of the appliances of architecture is in the designing of places of entertainment such as amphitheaters. The construction of an amphitheater is quite demanding as the acoustic properties of the building site must be taken into consideration as well.A properly built amphitheater however more than compensates for its investment. 

@@Future Technology
On the African plains at Zama (201 BC) the dream of Carthaginian dominance of the Mediteranean ended. It also spelled the advent of a new power.
Rome entered the war as simply another mediterranean state and emerged as a military superpower. Her meddling in Greek affairs ensured further expansion eastwards and later the creation of a universal Empire. That was the fate of the kosmos after the Roman victory in Hannibal's war.
Could it be otherwise?
 
@@Polytheism
Polytheism is the belief that the world and the environment is ruled or controlled by a number of different gods or divinities. Many ancient religions were polytheistic, notably those of the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Norse, and the Romans. Often, polytheistic religions have different gods for each force of nature and earthly phenomenon; for instance: a sun god, a moon god, a god of thunder, a god of the forests, and so forth. The reason for such diversity in divine beings probably stems from ancient civilizations attempting to find explanations for natural events they could not understand. Although some isolated examples still exist today, most polytheistic religions have either died out or evolved into monotheism.

@@Radio
Prior to Gugliemo Marconi's invention of the radio in 1896, long-distance communication was carried out either by mail or over miles of cable via telegraph. Marconi's first demonstration of the radio telegraph transmitted a message just over one mile without the use of wires. Continued improvements increased transmission range to over 200 miles by early 1901, and by the end of the year a single letter ("A") had been transmitted across the Atlantic Ocean. By 1905, many ships were equipped with radio telegraphs for ship-to-ship and ship-to-land communications, and by 1915 the invention of the three-element vacuum tube, or triode, made it possible to regularly transmit voice messages over the airwaves. Throughout the years, radio has been refined not only for communication, but for detection and ranging (Radar) and astronomy.

@@Refrigeration
Prior to World War I, ice was the most widely used means of refrigeration for perishable items. After the war, electrical refrigerators became commonly available. The availability of these systems allowed for more constant and efficient cooling, in turn allowing perishable meats, dairy products, and other items to be stored, or even frozen, for long periods of time. As a result, food producers could increase their output, since excess food could be stored for later sale or consumption. The concept of the wholesale selling of bulk foods (known as the supermarket) was, in part, made possible by improved refrigeration. The same method used in food refrigeration was also developed for use in air conditioners.

@@Sanitation
The increased waste produced by growing populations over time eventually led to potential health hazards. It then became necessary to come up with systems to dispose of garbage and human waste in a sanitary manner. Plumbing systems designed to remove waste water from dwellings and public buildings became commonplace, as did sewage plants which treated the wastewater before it was dumped into local waterways. Landfills were established, and garbage was collected for sanitary disposal in dumps and landfills a safe distance from the general population. These measures led to a healthier environment, and allowed for further population growth.

@@Seafaring
As empires grew and trade expanded to new areas, travel by sea became increasingly important to the civilizations of the world. Experienced sailors passed down their lore and techniques to new generations who sailed to increasingly distant lands. Originally, these long voyages were trade-oriented. But the ability to travel great distances led to a new breed of adventurers whose goal was primarily one of exploration. The Vikings were some of the earliest and most successful explorers in history. Their knowledge of the sea and experience with long ocean voyages allowed explorers such as Leif Ericson to successfully cross the Atlantic and land in the Americas more than 500 years before Columbus. The pioneering spirit of these early ocean travelers formed the basis for the seafaring traditions of generations to come.

@@Stealth
The African mainland was never seriously threatened by the Romans - until Scipio jr decided to do something about it that is. After securing Spain, Scipio requested permission to invade Africa with the remnnants of the Cannae legions. He estimated that such a move would force Hannibal's recall from Italy. His plan succeeded and Hannibal was promptly recalled with whatever troops he could afford. The Cannae legions, anxious to redeem themselves, fought frenziedly and caused havoc until Hannibal arrived. At Zama in 201BC, having lost the Numidian cavalry support which switched sides, the Great Carthaginian was finally vanquished.

EFFECT:
Despite the Senate's confidence that there is nothing more planned by the Romans than the odd raid, reports of a vast army asembling in Sicily forces them to reinforce the capitol with African troops.

@@Tactics
The science of the deployment of military forces to accomplish a short-range goal or objective is known as tactics. In unique or difficult situations, the maneuvers and methods of attack must be chosen wisely to give ones troops the maximum possible advantage over the enemy by taking advantage of the enemy's weaknesses. The successful tactics of military commanders are studied by their successors for possible modification and use under current conditions. Although tactics that work well in certain situations may not always be successful when used again, proven military tactics have worked well in many different battle situations throughout history. The vast amount of advanced equipment and resources available in modern warfare make the proper tactical coordination of a campaign vital, but difficult to achieve with total success.

@@Theology
Theology is the study of God and religious truth. Theologians take a more or less scientific approach to questions of religion, deeply studying the underlying meaning of scriptures and religious teachings rather than "taking them on faith". Theological seminaries teach courses of study in theology to prepare people as priests and clergymen. Many of the earliest colleges of the western world were originally established for this purpose. Theological study helped to remove some of the superstitions that had surrounded religion for so long, and brought religious study into a more enlightened age.

@@Warrior Code
The samurai of feudal Japan lived by a doctrine known as "Bushido", or "the way of the warrior". This code of behavior stressed such virtues as loyalty, courage, and politeness. The honor of the warrior could only be maintained if the rules of the code were followed. A similar code of behavior known as chivalry was later developed under the feudal system in medieval Europe. Although the strict adherence to both Bushido and chivalry were abandoned along with the feudal system in the 1800's, certain principals of discipline and behavior inherent in these systems can still be found in the military today.

@@Wheel
The invention of the wheel represented a major turning point in human civilization. The first wheels, disks carved from solid wood, may have been built as early as 3500 BC. The earliest use of this device was the potter's wheel, used to spin and shape clay pottery. It was not long before the true potential of the wheel was discovered, and wheeled carts soon replaced the sledge as a means of transportation. Rapid developments, such as wheels consisting of a ring with radial spokes, made the wheel even more practical by reducing its weight. By using the wheel, mankind gained the ability to work more efficiently and travel more quickly. Besides its use in transportation, the wheel went on to become the basic principle behind almost every mechanical device.

@@Writing
The development of writing is considered one of the most important advances of civilization. The earliest forms of writing were simple symbols and marks, used to keep accounts and inventories. Some cultures developed pictographic symbols to tell stories and record events. Eventually, complete systems of writing were developed, capable of conveying any thought that could be expressed orally. At this point, scribes replaced the oral historian as the chief keepers of records. Writing allowed the presentation of information in a form that could be reliably transmitted from person to person and made it possible for ideas, history, and knowledge to be stored permanently and passed between cultures more reliably than through oral recitation.

@@Gunpowder
Gunpowder is a chemical mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal. When ignited, it burns rapidly and explodes if contained to any degree. Gunpowder is believed to have been developed by the Chinese, who used it in fireworks as early as the 9th century, but it did not reach Europe until the 14th century. Europeans immediately saw the potential of this substance, and manufactured it for use in weapons as early as 1334. The discovery of gunpowder led to the invention of firearms, such as the musket, which led to the replacement of archers in most armies of the world by the late 1500s. Gunpowder marked one of the major technological turning points in military history, significantly changing the way wars were fought.

@@Horseback Riding
When the Celts poured into the Iberian penisula in the 7th century BC they brought not only destruction and slaughter, but also their superb metaworking techniques. These translated into excellent swords and other weapons of war, far superior to any used in the east. Hispanic and Celt-Iberian warriors used two types of swords, the Falcata and the Gladius. Although the first was far more commonly used, it was the latter that attracted Roman attention. The Gladius Hispaniensis was a formidable weapon and in the right hands could carry the day. The wounds inflicted by its 50-52cm blade were terrifying.
The Romans first encountered it in the hands of Hispanic mercenaries during the first Punic war. However it was not until the capture of Carthago Nova in Hannibal's war that the Roman army understood its value in combat. Its rather short blade was sharpened on both edges and had a sharp stabbing point and coupled with high speed, made it a deadly weapon to wield in melee. Understandably this short hilt weapon became the standard arm issue in the later Roman army.
Philip V, although possesing a highly drilled and proffesional army was shocked by the Gladius' efficiency and despite having won a skirmish with the Romans, ordered the Macedonian dead to be secretly buried, lest the rest of his soldiers witness the dire wounds the enemy weapons were capable of inflicting.

@@Industrialization
The Romans were superb builders. Roads, bridges, aqueducts, forts - all were built by their inexhaustible legionaries. The Roman state itself was highly industrialised: Workshops, warehouses, craftsmen, armouries and the like, were commonplace in many Roman towns. The Roman army was kept in the field and supplied thanks to an excellent logistics network based on the very workshops and factories that supplied the state's economy in peace time.  

@@Invention
The contrivance of a previously unknown device, method, or process which can, in turn, be used to accomplish an objective in a ways thought to be impossible, is known as invention. Essentially, inventiveness is the ability to take one or more newly discovered concepts and find a way to put them to practical use. The earliest inventions of mankind date back to ancient stone and metal tools used for hunting, digging, and other everyday tasks. After writing allowed the ideas of various civilizations to be exchanged and studied, mankind's inventions became increasingly more useful and innovative. Most inventions are geared toward improving or simplifying human existence in some way. Often, inventions themselves make it possible to make new discoveries, which then go on to inspire better and more innovative inventions.

@@Iron Working
The last period of the European Iron age is termed the La Tene period, the name being taken from a Celtic city in Switzerland. Developed around the 6th and 5th centuries BC, the era is characterized by an artistic style that drew upon Greek, Etruscan, and Scythian motifs and translated them into highly abstract designs in metal, pottery, and wood.

@@Steel
Publius Cornelius Scipio the younger was given command in Spain and with a total of 28 000 foot and 3000 horse steadily drove the Carthaginians out of Iberia. His move against Carthago Nova leaves little doubt as to his ability as a commander.

EFFECT:
The Roman Senate decides it is time to end the Spanish "problem" for good. A huge army under Scipio invades Iberia. 

@@Superconductor
Ancient trade depended much on sea routes and therefore on proper naval facilities. And so did the waging of war. The large seaports of Sicily and southern Italy are capable of facilitating hundreds of ships, and process tons of materiel every day. Hannibal's army desperately tried to secure these vital objectives, thus opening sea contact with Africa. Unfortunately the ever vigilant Roman navy closed down all access to the sea for the Punic Italian army.

@@Theory of Gravity
In the 17th century, Sir Isaac Newton developed the law of universal gravitation. This law recognized that every mass in the universe exerts an attraction on every other mass. Newton postulated that gravity was a universal force that affected all matter. Newton's theory served to explain the forces of attraction between the Earth and nearby objects, as well as the forces that affect the motion of planets and other astronomical bodies. In the early 20th century, Albert Einstein's special theory of relativity led to a major reinterpretation and clarification of Newton's theory of gravity. Scientists now believe that gravity affects energy as well as matter, and that gravity is actually a fundamental warping of the fabric of space-time. Some theorize that the force of this warping is transmitted by as-yet-unobserved particles called gravitons.

@@Trade
One of the oldest and most widespread social institutions is the exchange of goods, or trade. Most ancient trade consisted of barter, where two traders would exchange goods with one another. The widespread practice of trade allowed civilizations to exchange raw materials and goods which they had in abundance or could easily produce, for items that were rare or nonexistent in their geographic region. The introduction of regulated currency that could be exchanged for items resulted in easier, more convenient trade. Merchants soon roamed the world, connecting different lands with webs of economic interdependence. In addition to goods and profits, traders also brought back tales and technology from these foreign lands. Well-traveled traders like Marco Polo were among the most learned sources on the cultures and traditions of foreign lands.

@@The University
Experience from the Median wars taught the Greeks the importance of light armed soldiers. Usually lacking armour and heavy weapons, the light troops or Psiloi are ideally suited for hit and run tactics and for operating in rough terrain. Commonly neglected by the Romans and Greeks in favour of heavy infantry, light troops were used with tremendous success by Alexander and Hannibal.

@IMPROVEMENT_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the IMPROV.PDE text file in the original
;Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;
; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,
; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that
; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Palace will be the 16'th (remember,
; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.
; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.
; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.
;
@@IMPROVEMENT_INDEX
-1,			; Nothing
15,			; Palace
2,			; Barracks
8,			; Granary
22,			; Temple
12,			; MarketPlace
10,			; Library
6,			; Courthouse
4,			; City Walls
0,			; Aqueduct
1,			; Bank
3,			; Cathedral
23,			; University
13,			; Mass Transit
5,			; Colosseum
7,			; Factory
11,			; Manufacturing Plant
18,			; SDI Defense
17,			; Recycling Center
16,			; Power Plant
9,			; Hydro Plant
14,			; Nuclear Plant
34,			; Stock Exchange
32,			; Sewer System
35,			; Supermarket
36,			; Superhighways
30,			; Research Lab
31,			; SAM Missile Battery
26,			; Coastal Fortress
33,			; Solar Plant
37,			; Harbor
27,			; Offshore Platform
24,			; Airport
28,			; Police Station
29,			; Port Facility
21,			; SS Structural
19,			; SS Component
20,			; SS Module
25,			; (Capitalization)
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Aqueduct
A major obstacle to population growth and expansion in early cities was the scarcity of water. In many cases, the solution to this problem was an aqueduct. Aqueducts were large, elevated stone "canals" through which water from nearby hills and mountains was channeled into the city. Aqueducts allowed cities to grow much larger by significantly increasing the amount of available water. At the same time aqueducts reduced the chance of contracting water-borne diseases, by reducing the dependence on stagnant ponds and wells as water sources. Aqueducts also allowed cities to be built in normally inhospitable environments, such as deserts, by providing an outside water source. Modern day Los Angeles, for example, obtains its water supply from the Colorado River, through a system of aqueducts over 200 miles long.

@@Bank
The city treasury contains all the accumulated gold from taxes and trade that enter the state coffins every year. Usually located within the city Acropolis, it also contains prized craftswork and valuable sculptures. On occasions it contains city documents of paramount importance, such as defensive plans or invaluable literature.

@@Barracks
Warfare has been a recurring phenomenon throughout the history of mankind, and it continues to plague the world today. Although war is not a desirable situation, it is important that even the most peaceful of societies be prepared for the possibility of war. When warring nations are closely matched in technology and manpower, battles are usually won by the army with the best training. Military schools and academies exist all over the world, established for the purpose of training military personnel in the latest methods, tactics, and technology. Men and women who graduate from such facilities possess higher than average command and military and technological skills, making them more effective in combat situations.

@@Cathedral
The most widespread ancient religion was the worship of the Olympian Pantheon: Zeus, Hera, Hephaestus, Hermes, Ares, Apollo, Dionysus, Poseidon, Athena, Aphrodite, Hades and Demetra. Zeus was the leader of the twelve gods who had human passions and weaknesses. This pantheon, followed by the Greeks and Romans, has been diluted in the Hellenistic years by Asian religions; Nevertheless a large temple dedicated to the pantheon leader makes the people feel secure from his wrath and offers an illusion(?) of protection.
The Carthaginians pay tribute to Baal, the Phoenician God of terror.

@@City Walls
Many cities constructed city walls to protect against raiders and bandits. City walls represented a major investment in both time and materials, requiring years to complete and constant repairs to maintain their strength and integrity. However, these walls turned the city into a fortress capable of withstanding all but the most determined attack.
Hannibal's army completly lacked siege machines of any kind and that proved their undoing. Fortified Roman cities were impossible to capture without a siege train and therefore the Carthaginian was unable to exploit his victories on the field.

@@Colosseum
Amphitheaters are circular or oval arenas, surounded by seats rising tier upon tier. Built in areas specially selected for their acoustic properties, amphitheaters stage a large variety of plays from Aristophane's comedies to Sophocles dramas that lure the crowds. The great amphitheatre of Capua is the most renown in all of Italy.

@@Courthouse
The most defensible point in a city was the Acropolis. Surrounded by walls, it forms the quarters of any standing garisson and last line of defense. It was common custom in ancient times for vassal states to have foreign garrisons, to ensure their loyalty. The Roman confederation is based upon such a system of garissons. Member states have the right to trade, elect their own senators and conduct civil business as they please under the ever watchfull(and protective) eyes of a Roman garisson.
The occupation of a strongpoint such as the Acropolis, is enough to prohibit control of the rest of the city, to an invading army. 

@@Factory
Workshops in ancient times produced pottery, woodcraft and other fineties that contributed to the prosperity of the city. Usually the busineses operated on a family basis and employed few workers. Workshops specialize in a particular product; Metalworking, sculptures, toy making and more importantily weapon and armour manufacturing are just some of the items ancient workshops produced.

@@Granary
Early humans were nomadic, settling in specific regions only for brief periods of time. When the food supply was exhausted in one area, the nomads would move on to search for more. Cities became possible only when the development of agriculture made the supply of food more abundant and dependable. However, cities still needed a way to keep the food supply stable throughout all four seasons. To do so, the citizens had to come up with a way to store seasonal crops for later use. The Granary was designed for the storage and protection of surplus food. Food storage technology meant that a smaller percentage of the population could produce and store enough food for everyone, allowing the remainder to pursue other jobs and activities.

@@Hydro Plant
One alternative to power generation utilizing coal or petroleum fuels is the hydroelectric power plant. This facility utilizes the energy of rapidly moving water to turn the turbines of its generators and produce electricity. In locations where a source of moving water is available, hydro plants offer a clean, safe alternative to coal, petroleum, and nuclear power generation. However, hydro plants have their own set of environmental dangers. The disruption of a river's normal flow and the massive flooding of the land behind the facility's dam can destroy the habitat of the wildlife inhabiting the river basin.

@@Library
The development of writing meant that the accumulated knowledge of a society could be written down and stored rather than memorized and passed along by word of mouth. The accumulated written material was stored in a library. The libraries of the ancient world, especially those at Alexandria and Pergamum, became leading centers of science and scholarship. The librarians actively collected the books of the world, accelerating the spread of knowledge.

@@Manufacturing Plant
Manufacturing plants are large industrial complexes that produce goods of all types, although they are generally used to produce durable consumer goods such as automobiles. Essentially, a manufacturing plant is a large, sophisticated factory that employs specialization of labor, complex machinery, and assembly lines to gain efficiency and economies of scale. This combination of manpower and automation increases productivity and reduces production costs.

@@Marketplace
As cities grew and prospered, trade between the farmers, artisans, and craftsmen who lived in the vicinity contributed to the economic health of the city. It soon became apparent that the best way for conducting trade within the city was to have a central location, or marketplace, where the people offering goods and services, or seeking them, could meet and conduct business. As a city's marketplace grew larger and more active, the economic vitality of the city grew as well.

@@Mass Transit
Within a few decades of the invention of the automobile, the horse-drawn carriage disappeared from city streets. Along with all the advantages offered by the automobile, this new means of transportation quickly became a significant source of air pollution. As larger cities became more crowded, the number of cars increased, making travel difficult and adding to the pollution problem as automobile traffic clogged the streets. The development of mass transit systems, including busses, trolleys, subways, and light rail, led to a reduction in traffic and, as a result, a reduction in air pollution.

@@Nuclear Power Plant
The Roman army is supported by a superb logistics system that has proven the winning factor in many wars. The legionaries are never in short of armour, weapons and supplies. The major industrial centers of Italy(Rome, Capua, Etruria) posses great weapon storages and military warehouses that serve as equipment pools for the Roman army.
 
@@Palace
When populations began to organize their communities into cities, their governments became more structured and formalized. At an early stage, the ruler of the city established headquarters from which the business of running the city was conducted. In many cases, these buildings also served as the living quarters of the ruler. In wealthy cities, these facilities often expanded into immense, sprawling palaces. These richly adorned, imposing buildings were a source of civic pride, and helped to reinforce the aura of power surrounding the ruler.

@@Power Plant
The Roman army is supported by a superb logistics system that has proven the winning factor in many wars. The legionaries are never in short of armour, weapons and supplies. The major industrial centers of Italy (Rome, Capua, Etruria) posses great weapon storages and military warehouses that serve as equipment pools for the Roman army.

@@Recycling Center
The continual growth in city populations leads to an inevitable increase in garbage. Eventually, existing landfills and garbage dumps are  filled, forcing new dumping sites to be established. This leads to the gradual but steady destruction of the local environment. To reverse this problem, many areas have established recycling centers, where much of the garbage is sorted and reduced to reusable components through various means. These components are then used to manufacture new products. In this way, much of the trash produced is turned into raw materials for production, rather than contributing to the ever-increasing pollution problem.

@@SDI Defense
Historically, research in the area of warfare has seen the development of powerful new weapons closely followed by the development of defenses to counteract the weapons' destructive power. The development of nuclear weapons seemed to be the exception to this rule: for the first time, mankind had created a weapon to which there was apparently no effective defense. SDI (Strategic Defense Initiative), however, could be the answer to this problem. Using laser-equipped orbital satellites or ground-launched ABMs (Anti-Ballistic Missiles) to intercept and destroy enemy nuclear missiles in mid-air, the SDI Defense offers the first hope of negating the threat posed by nuclear missiles.

@@Spaceship Component
Spaceship components provide the motive power of a spaceship. There are two types: propulsion and fuel. Propulsion components are the spaceship engines, and each fuel component provides enough fuel to run one engine. Every propulsion component requires a fuel component in order to function. At minimum, a spaceship requires one of each type of component. The more engines the spaceship possesses, the faster it  will arrive at its destination.

@@Spaceship Module
Modules are the central components of a spaceship. There are three types: habitation, life support, and solar panels. Each habitation module provides living space for 10,000 colonists. Each life support module provides enough food, water, and other basic requirements to support the colonists in one habitation module. Both habitation and life support modules require power in order to operate, and each solar panel module provides enough energy to run two other modules. At minimum, every spaceship requires one of each type of module in order to be successful in its mission.

@@Spaceship Structural
The structural parts of a spaceship are the frame to which all other parts of the spaceship are attached. All spaceship components and modules must be connected to a structural section in order to function. Components and modules not connected to the frame are outlined in red on the spaceship display. 

@@Temple
Ancient societies were very religious. Unable yet to explain natural phaenomena they attribute them to divine intervention. Be it Mithras for the Persians, Amon Rah for the Egyptians or Zeus for the Greeks, all mediteranean races honour their divine protectors by building places of workship. That eases people's consience and makes them content. In times of trouble the devout seek advice and protection within the temples. Temples also form places of gathering for the public, where usually political conversations erupt.

@@University
Universities are institutions of higher learning. Early universities, established in the Middle Ages, were usually built in cities that had a large or important cathedral. Studies at these institutions focused on matters concerning the church. The curricula quickly expanded to include classical art, literature, and languages. Modern universities provide the opportunity to study a wide array of subjects. They have also become centers for research into many fields, serving as the source of major advances in computers, medicine, physics, and a variety of other subjects.

@@Airport
The battle for the sea ports was a major event of the Second Punic war. Hannibal, facing huge logistical problems, tried to remedy them by securing seaports in the Italian penisula and Sicily, making it possible for Carthage and his Macedonian allies to ship him reinforcements. The Romans in turn tried to maintain control of the ports thus isolating Hannibal. The Seaport campaign reached its climax in the siege of Taras on the eastern Adriatic coast.

Cities with seaports:

Carthage(Africa)
Carthago Nova(Iberia)
Taras(Italy)
Syrracuse(Sicily)
Utica(Africa)
Lilybaeum(Sicily)
Agrigentum(Sicily)
Panormus(Sicily)
Messana(Sicily)
Croton(Italy)
Heracleia(Italy)
Metapontum(Italy)
Brundisium(Italy)
Rome(Italy)
Massilia(Gaul)  

The capture of some of these will greatly reduce the reinforcement problems of Hannibal's army.

@@Capitalization
Agriculture has been the backbone of many economies since the dawn of history. Italy is no excemption. The large fertile fields of Campania and Lucania virtually supply the whole of Roman Confederation with grain. The cultivation of agricultural products such as grain or livestock can revitalize an economy and contribute greatly to the prosperity of trade. Sheep, cows and other herd animals are valued for their meat ,milk, and skins, while grapes and beries are prized for their potential use as the basic ingredients for wine products.

@@Coastal Fortress
The construction of defensive structures such as city walls and fortified castles dates back to ancient times. City walls were designed primarily to repel an attack launched by ground-based forces, and they performed adequately in such a situation. However, coastal cities were also vulnerable to attack from sea bombardments, since even a city wall left sea ports relatively unprotected. The best way to protect the port was to keep the enemy out of range of the city. This was accomplished by constructing fortresses to cover the approach to the city. These coastal fortresses, built at the mouth of the city's harbor or on barrier islands, would hold enemy vessels at bay, turning away or thinning out the attacking force and minimizing damage to the city's port.

@@Offshore Platform
Specialised factories for ships first appeared in Athens and Persia. In this later Hellenistic era, where the tendency is towards heavier arms and ships, the construction of the mammoths that roam the seas is unthinkable without shipyards. Usually constructed in coastal areas, they need a steady supply of timber and professional engineers. The best shipwrights of the ancient world were undoubtedly the Phoenicians, albeit unskilled in naval combat.

@@Police Stations
The concept of a police force operating independently of the military goes back to the Praetorian Guard of ancient Rome. In the Middle Ages, noblemen protected their estates by appointing constables to enforce the law and to arrest and guard criminals, but the first modern, organized police force was the London Metropolitan Police. Established in 1829, this organization became the model for law enforcement organizations in the United States and many other industrialized nations around the world. The presence of a police force serves to uphold the laws of society, and to control civil unrest. A strong, visible police force strengthens confidence of the community by keeping the citizens safe.

@@Port Facilities
Seagoing vessels have been used for both commercial transport and military purposes for thousands of years. Cities built on rivers and on the coasts of seas and oceans built facilities to receive cargo and to house military vessels stationed in the area. Many of the larger cities built large port facilities that included shipyards for the construction of new vessels, large warehouse and docking facilities, and dry-docks for the repair of damaged vessels. Heavily damaged ships can be repaired much more quickly when such facilities are available.

@@Research Lab
Historically, libraries and universities have acted as the primary centers of research for new ideas and technologies. The growth of private industry in the modern age has also given birth to hundreds of privately-owned research facilities. These private laboratories, usually dedicated to research in a single field related to their founding company, have made tremendous advances in many fields including physics, biology, chemistry, and medicine. The growth of privately-funded  research has vastly increased the speed at which mankind achieves new advances in science and technology.

@@SAM Missile Battery
The use of airplanes in warfare began in earnest during World War I. By the end of World War II, the use of fighter aircraft and bombers was commonplace and the importance of air warfare continued to grow, as did the importance of effective anti-aircraft defenses. During the 1950's, the refinement of rocket technology allowed for the construction of compact missiles which were used to deliver explosive warheads to their targets swiftly and accurately. Batteries of surface-to-air missiles, or SAMs, were built to protect cities and ground installations against airborne attacks. The long range and high accuracy of SAM batteries provided a much more effective defense than the anti-aircraft guns of World War II.

@@Sewer System
One of the byproducts of large urban centers is a vast amount of human waste. As the city continues to grow, steps need to be taken to move the sewage away from inhabited areas and "treat" it so that it does not become a health hazard to humans or harm the local ecosystem. Sewer systems carry wastewater to treatment plants where the raw sewage is broken down through filtration and chemical processes to remove solids and harmful bacteria. The treated byproduct is then released into rivers and other waterways, where it is eventually washed safely into the ocean.

@@Solar Power Plant
One of the greatest natural sources of energy available on Earth is the sun. Solar energy can be converted directly into electrical power without the need for mechanical generators through the use of photoelectric cells. Alternatively, large solar collectors known as heliostats can be used to focus solar energy into a water boiler, generating steam to run conventional electrical turbines. Unfortunately, at our current level of technology, both of these systems are prohibitively expensive to construct. However, because of  the dwindling supply of fossil fuels and increasing concern over the pollution produced by conventional and nuclear power plants, scientists are constantly working on a viable way to harness the clean and endless supply of energy provided by our sun.

@@Stock Exchange
In a free market economy, corporations often raise operating and development capital by selling "shares" in the corporation to private investors. These shares, which allow investors to share in the company's profits, were originally sold by brokers and privately hired auctioneers. Early European stock exchanges, such as the Paris Bourse, allowed anyone to buy and sell stock. However, it was quickly discovered that a formalized system was necessary in order to enforce transactions. Thereafter, membership in the exchange was required in order to buy and sell. The first formal stock exchange in the U.S. was established in 1791 in Philadelphia, and the New York Stock Exchange was established a year later. Today, stock exchanges are located in many major cities and commercial centers around the world. Private investment in corporations is vital to capitalistic economies, allowing corporations to grow more quickly than would otherwise be possible. The profits and new jobs created as a result improve the economy as a whole.

@@Supermarket
Supermarkets are large, self-service retail stores that sell a wide variety of food items and household goods  to the general public. The first true supermarket, King Kullen, was established in 1930 in the borough of Queens, New York City, by Michael Cullen. Improved storage techniques and refrigeration allowed supermarkets to stock and sell perishable foods in large quantities, reducing the price to the consumer. The combination of ready availability and low prices made the supermarket an instant success in the U.S. during the years of the Great Depression.  The supermarket continues to grow in popularity in countries around the world.

@@Superhighway
Early in his career, President Eisenhower traveled by road, from coast to coast, across the United States. This trip, which took nearly a month because of the poor system of roads, convinced him that it was necessary to make all areas of the country easily accessible. Not only were these improvements important to the growing number of people traveling by automobile, they could prove invaluable for the movement of troops and military equipment should the need arise. In 1956, Eisenhower established a federal-aid program known as the Highway Trust Fund to accelerate the construction of a network of interstate roads. By 1991, the Interstate Highway System in the U.S. consisted of over 42,000 miles of highways. Unlike local roadways, superhighways were designed to bypass large population centers, and were accessible in limited locations at planned entrance and exit interchanges. These highly efficient roadways allow motorists today to travel from one end of the country to the other without having to slow down for intersections and traffic signals.

@@Harbor
Just because a city is built in a coastal region doesn't guarantee that the city is readily accessible by ship. In order for a port city to establish a steady trade, fishing, or other shipping industry, the city must have a harbor. A harbor is a protected body of water that opens into an ocean or lake that shelters ships from waves and high winds. Although some coastal cities are established in areas where a natural harbor exists, most seaports are forced either to improve the existing natural harbor, or to build a man-made harbor to shelter ships and provide channels deep enough to accommodate large vessels.

@WONDER_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the WONDER.PDE text file in the ;original Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;
; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,
; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that
; corresponds to the rules entry, but adjusted by NUM_IMPROVEMENTS.
; For example, Adam Smith's Trading Co. will be the 0'th (remember,
; the list is zero based)(INDEX - NUM_INPROVEMENTS) description below begining with @@.
; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.
; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.
;
@@WONDER_INDEX
21,			; Pyramids
9,			; Hanging Gardens
2,			; Colossus
15,			; Lighthouse
7,			; Great Library
20,			; Oracle
8,			; Great Wall
25,			; Sun Tzu's War Academy
13,			; King Richard's Crusade
18,			; Marco Polo's Embassy
19,			; Michelangelo's Chapel
3,			; Copernicus' Observatory
16,			; Magellan's Expedition
23,			; Shakespeare's Theatre
14,			; Leonardo's Workshop
12,			; J. S. Bach's Cathedral
11,			; Isaac Newton's College
0,			; Adam Smith's Trading Co.
5,			; Darwin's Voyage
24,			; Statue of Liberty
6,			; Eiffel Tower
27,			; Women's Suffrage
10,			; Hoover Dam
17,			; Manhattan Project
26,			; United Nations
1,			; Apollo Program
22,			; SETI Program
4,			; Cure for Cancer
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Adam Smith's Trading Co.
Adam Smith is generally regarded as the father of modern economics. In his book "The Wealth of Nations", he analyzed the economic processes of supply and demand, and discussed how free trade and individual ambition would lead to both economic and social growth. Smith favored a political environment where the government would only become involved in business and trade to preserve justice and order. Smith's ideas of economics and the lack of government involvement form the basis of modern economic liberalism.

@@Apollo Program
The Apollo Program was begun by the United States in the late 1960s. Following the success of the manned orbital missions of the Mercury and Gemini programs, the destination of the Apollo program was the moon. The early Apollo flights concentrated on orbital observations of the moon, and testing the docking systems of the Apollo craft. The ultimate goal of the Apollo Program was accomplished by Apollo 11 on July 20, 1969, when Neil Armstrong became the first human to walk on the moon. Several other landings followed, the last being Apollo 17 in December, 1972. The Apollo program truly represented a "giant leap for mankind". The U.S. manned lunar missions are unparalleled feats in space exploration, and the technology originally developed for the Apollo Program was later found to be invaluable in designing future space vehicles and orbital platforms.

@@Colossus
Carthage had always been a trade based city. It was as a trade outpost that it was founded by the original Phoenician colonists, and as a trade empire that it expanded in the Mediterranean.
The great artificial harbour, the Cothon, has two parts, the outer rectangular part being for merchant shipping, the interior, circular division being reserved for warships; sheds and quays are available for 220 warships.
The harbour is used chiefly in winter when navigation almost ceases.

Appian of Alexandria writing in the second century A.D:

"The harbours had communication with each other, and a common entrance from the sea seventy feet wide, which could be closed with iron chains.
 The first port was for merchant vessels, and here were collected all kinds of ships' tackle. Within the second port was an island, and great quays were set at intervals round both the harbour and the island. These embankments were full of shipyards which had capacity for 220 vessels. In addition to them were magazines for their tackle and furniture.
 Two Ionic columns stood in front of each dock, giving the appearance of a continuous portico to both the harbour and the island. On the island was built the admiral's house, from which the trumpeter gave signals, the herald delivered orders, and the admiral himself oversaw everything".

EFFECT:
The masterful design of Cothon allows trade to flourish in the area. Every merchant in Carthage's vicinity benefits from the Harbour's design, producing extra profit.




@@Copernicus' Observatory
Syracuse, as the Romans found out, is an excellently fortified city.
The Epipolae district is the heart of the city's defence system.
Based on high ground it borders in the west with the island of Ortygia, where the Greek settlers first landed.
Its other three exposed flanks are contained by the city wall defences and Epipolae includes, on the far west, the citadel of Eyrysius,
and, at Hexapylon, on the eastern end of its northern flank, the City gate.
The sturdy city wall,commenced by Dionysius the Elder in 401BC, surrounds the entire city and extends a distance of more than 20 miles.

During the siege of Syracuse by the Roman consul Marcellus (214BC-212BC) Archimedes, the mathematical genius orchestrated the defence of the city.  
Taking into account the varying nature of the ground over which the city wall had been constructed, he drew up plans for the various sectors which defined, by range capacity, the types of artillery and weight of shot to be employed, together with the fire tables and weapon concentration to be followed.

After all assaults failed the Romans initated a blockade.
At the eve of the festival of Diana when all the sentries were drunk the Romans scaled the walls and occupied the Epipolae plateu, thus sealing the fate of Syracuse.

EFFECT:
It's great defences strengthen the independant spirit of the Syracusans and along with Archimedes genius they produce 50% more science than they normally should.


@@Cure for Cancer
Despite the huge outlays of cash for research and study, cancer still looms as a terrifying and deadly plague on the human race. Although scientists and doctors have discovered many different forms of cancer, and have identified some of the factors that can trigger the disease, a true cure still eludes modern medical science. A cure for cancer would put an end to the source of much suffering and anguish, and allow millions of people, who would otherwise be doomed, to lead happy and productive lives.

@@Darwin's Voyage
By pledging their full support for the conflict with Rome, the Carthaginian Senate commits the African citizens into a total war.
All of Carthaginian society is geared towards the war: workshops and manufacturies produce spears and panoplies, trade vessels transport troops instead of goods and children are trained in the arts of war instead of learning the arts of science.
This is going to be Carthage's war. All possible support is coming from the mainland this time.

EFFECT:
Every male citizen of military age is conscripted into the army. Every ship is modified to carry arms and every horse is taken for the cavalry.
Two free Carthaginian advances.

@@Eiffel Tower
In 283 BC four Achaean towns formed a league of defence against Macedon which became known as the Aetolian league. During the succeeding years the league expanded its influence and in 251 BC Sicyon, one of Macedonia's keys to the Peloponnesus was liberated and joined the league. Corinth was also detached from Macedonian hegemony. Finally Troezen and the other towns of the east and south joined so that the whole of northern Peloponnesus was able to form a united front against Macedon.
A second league was formed by the Aetolians in central Greece, which succeeded in extending its control over Boetia in 245BC. By 239BC these two leagues had greatly reduced the power of Macedon in the south.

EFFECT:
The Greek league is seen with approval by the rest of the world as a defence against Macedonian imperialsim.
Every nation's attitude is swayed sympathetically towards the league.  

@@Great Library
The Great Library of Alexandria was one of the two most important libraries of the ancient world. It was founded around 300 BC by Ptolemy I, and was enhanced and expanded by his successors. The library attempted to obtain copies of all scrolls of any consequence, and eventually contained over 700,000 volumes. The library was destroyed by religious fanatics in 391 AD, after nearly 700 years of operation. During this period, Alexandria served as the cultural center of the Hellenistic world. Today, only part of the catalogue remains, providing us with a mere hint of what treasures the library contained.

@@Great Wall
Hannibal's early sucesses led the Romans to be fearful of any open confrontation with him. The appointment of Fabius Maximus Quintus as Dictator in 217BC turned that fear into a policy.
The Roman armies from now on shadowed Hannibal instead of engaging him. All garissons were reinforced, thus making it impossible for an army without siege engines to acquire a base of operatons.
Hannibal was trying at the same time to solve his huge logistical problems and force the Romans to battle.
When Fabius' appointment ended after six months in office, the Roman army eagerly took again the field against the Great Carthaginian. And the result was Cannae.   
The roots of the later "indirect strategy" employed by Scipio Africanus lay in the Fabian strategy.

EFFECT:
Determined defence at all costs and a scorched earth doctrine make it nearly impossible for the Punic army to capture any major city, without severe casualities that will only worsen their logistics problem.

Every Roman city has a city wall.

@@Hanging Gardens
It was common custom for ancient peoples at the time to honour their battle victories by a triumph.The Greeks for example
set up a monument in the battlefield with an enscription of their deeds.
The Romans however celebrated much more differently. All prisoners, captured horses, ornaments, booty, enemy standards etc took part in a great parade in Rome.The jubilant crowd cheered for the general leading the column and the whole event culminated,in later imperial times, with the execution of the defeated enemy general.

At a time when Rome has trouble even defending herself, great victories such as the capture of Carthago Nova or the defeat of Hannibal
can spur patriotic fervour.

EFFECT:
The great parade sends waves of jubilance in all directions, as the faith in the final victory is strengthened.

Three happy citizens in the city the triumph takes place, and one in all the others. 

@@Hoover Dam
Syracuse's Grand Harbour is the most important naval base of Sicily and southern Italy. It's large facilities can provide supplies for hundreds of warships and merchant vessels.
It borders to the east with the small island of Ortygia and to the west with the district of Lysimelia just south of the merchant district of Achradine.
The Syracusan navy always found a stable base in the Grand Harbour.

When Admiral Bomilcar entered the Grand harbour in 214BC with fifty five Carthaginian warships in an attempt to lift the siege he was detered by the size of the Roman navy and withdrew. At the same time General Himilco with 25 000 men and 3000 cavalry had encircled Marcellus' men besieging Syracuse from land. He too hesitated when he saw the great numbers of the Roman army.
And thus an amazing opportunity to anihilate both the soldiers and navy besieging Syracuse was wasted.
The city lasted two more years, being resupplied by its Grand Harbour, until a virulent plague swept across the battlegrounds affecting all in its path and weakening the Carthaginian defenders.

EFFECT:
The grand harbour greatly facilitates the transportation of goods, vital for the Syracusan economy. Syracusan workshops have increased production thanks to the quick availability of raw material.


@@Isaac Newton's College
Sir Isaac Newton, a mathematician and physicist, is considered to be one of the greatest scientists of all time. He is credited with many important discoveries including the laws of gravity, the color spectrum of light, calculus, fluid dynamics, and an understanding of ocean tides. He also built the world's first reflecting telescope. For 32 years, he held an important teaching post at Cambridge University, where he continued his own research while instructing a generation of students.

@@J.S. Bach's Cathedral
Few composers were more prolific or beloved than Johann Sebastian Bach. Bach, the most well-known member of a gifted family of German musicians, was perhaps the finest composer of the baroque style of music. In his time, he wrote numerous choral and orchestral pieces. During his lifetime, he was renowned as an organist and music director of St. Thomas' Church in Leipzig, and many of his compositions were religious in nature. After his death, Bach's music gained worldwide appreciation.

@@King Richard's Crusade
In all its history the Roman army excelled in two things: discipline and logistics.
Many times they managed to prevail over their enemies by sending legion after legion against them. And so they did against Hannibal.
Whereas the Carthaginans had trouble finding reinforcements the Roman army was training more troops than Hannibal could hope to eliminate.
While the Punic army ever dwindled in strengh, the Roman army was continuously expanding and improving. A well organised network of workshops, armouries, roads and allied contributions were responsible for that.

EFFECT:
When the military workshops of Rome are allowed to produce their full potential, the results are terrifying.
Every square around Rome produces an extra "shield".

@@Leonardo's Workshop
According to the finest Celtic traditions, Celt-Iberians were excellent craftsmen. Their techniques are described by Diodorus: "....The process of manufacture....is very special: they bury the sheets of iron, leaving them until rust has destroyed the weak part of the metal, leaving only the more solid part of it. With this iron they produce excellent swords and other weapons of war.".
Iberian and Celt-Iberian warriors of the time used a sinister two bladed short sword, called the Gladius. This terrifying weapon was capable of inflicting dire wounds and so impressed the Romans that they adopted it. When Scipio captured Carthago Nova in 210 BC he became virtually the master of Spain and many Iberian tribesmen flocked to his side. He even started accepting embassies and settle quarels. Among the most useful of these tribesmen where Iberian blacksmiths that introduced Hispanic swords to the amazed Romans.
From them the Romans came in contact with the Gladius Hispaniensis short sword and equiped their soldiers with it, a most effective weapon.

EFFECT:
If the Romans capture New Carthage they acquire a whole stock of Hispanic arms, which they promptly issue to their troops. 

@@Lighthouse
During the first Punic war the Romans realised that as long as the Carthaginians have control of the seas they'll never manage to prevail.
With the help of their ally king Hierro of Syracuse, they built a fleet and and took on the Carthaginians. After some initial setbacks they finally defeated the Punic fleet at the naval battle of the Aegates isles(summer 241BC) thanks to their invention of the Corvus.After the war the Carthaginians were forbidden to sail quinqueremes in Italian waters, pay a huge war indemnity and surrender most of their fleet, thus leaving the Romans undisputed masters of the sea.

EFFECT:
Any ship produced in Roman shipyards has a veteran crew, its movement is increased by one and has Neptune's favour (no danger of sinking if away from land).

@@Magellan's Expedition
After war was initiated again in 219 BC the Carthaginians set about rebuilding their fleet.Unfortunately the days of Phoenician naval supermacy were long gone. Iberian mercenary crews manned their ships and the remnants of the once proud fleet were in a bad state of repair.
Nevertheless naval supermacy is essential for a sucessful conclusion of a war against Rome.

EFFECT:
Carthaginian crews receive profesional training and the ships are built by better materials thus increasing their movement by two. 

@@Manhattan Project
The Manhattan Project was the code name for an intensive and costly research effort during World War II that resulted in the development of atomic weapons. The first two such weapons, the bombs dropped on Nagasaki and Hiroshima in 1945, brought an end to the second World War. For a short time, the United States held a monopoly on atomic weapons. However, by 1949 the Soviet Union had also developed similar technology, based in part on Manhattan Project information obtained through espionage. The nuclear standoff that has resulted from this balance of power may be largely responsible for the absence of major wars since World War II.

@@Marco Polo's Embassy
Marco Polo was a trader, writer, and world traveler who lived in the late 13th and early 14th century. Starting as a young boy, he began traveling with his father and uncle, who were merchants and traders in Venice, along a route that would take him throughout Europe, the Middle East, and Asia. Throughout his life, he visited many places bringing back detailed information concerning lands that no European before him had visited. Polo's book, "The Travels of Marco Polo", was the only existing source of reliable information on such exotic locales as Siam, Japan, Java, Tibet, and India that existed in medieval Europe.

@@Michelangelo's Chapel
Carthaginian politics is a complex subject. Although in name ruled by a Senate in reality certain powerful families or factions hold true power in Africa.
Prominent among them and protagonist of the Punic wars is the Barca family. Champions of the merchant middle class and with democratic sympathies, the Barcas are also the holders of a great military tradition.
After the first Punic war the middle class was suffocating economically. Hamilcar Barca, father of Hannibal, led the invasion of Spain that would open new markets for the middle class.
After 20 years of rulership by the Barcas before the outstart of the war, Iberia had become virtually a family province.
That didn't sit well in eyes of the mostly autocratic Carthaginian Senate who hampered at every turn the conduct of the war by the Barcas.
When Scipio was rampaging in Iberia, general Hasdrubal Gisgo was dispatched to reinforce Hasdrubal Barca, brother of Hannibal. The Gisgos were long time enemies of the Barca family and the Senate aimed at dispersing Barca power in Spain.
That and many other instances prevented the Carthaginians from acting in the nessesary unity to win the war.

Despite all, in the third Punic war another Hannibal Barca was summoned to save the city from the Romans, proving that the old family military traditions had not died out.

EFFECT:
The Barca family's influence is great and their military traditions respected among the populace.
Three citizens in every city are content.
 
@@Oracle
In ancient Greek religion, an oracle was a priest or priestess through whom the gods spoke in response to questions. The oracle interpreted dreams, the actions of entranced persons, and physical signs found in the entrails of sacrificed animals. The most famous oracle resided in the shrine of Apollo at Delphi, located on the slopes of Mount Parnassus. This oracle was consulted for centuries by Greeks, Romans, and others about public policy and private matters. A priestess called the Pythia would, for a fee, make public predictions for the future. These ecstatic pronouncements became infamous for their ambiguity.

@@Pyramids
Apart from being a major military and logistics base, Capua was long known as a prosperous commercial centre.
Its vast storehouses are capable of feeding armies. Top export product of course being red wine.

The Capuan Senate sent representatives to Varro after Cannae, whilst he was rallying the remnants of the legions in Venusia,ostensibly to offer reinforcements, but in fact to assess the situaton as it affected them.

Varro told them "Do you expect us to ask you for reinforcments of
foot soldiers - as if we were of course well off for cavalry?
Allies reinforce - but fate has left us nothing which can BE reinforced...."

These words along with the low morale of the poorly equipped refugee troops they saw gathering there did nothing to sustain their confidence.  
They promptly sent then a delegation to Hannibal.

Later when Roman forunes revived, the city became the focus of all the land operations in Italy.Hannibal's inability to relieve the city led him to
feign a march on Rome, for which the Romans didn't fall. Before Capua was captured the Senators responsible for the rebellion commited suicide.
The rest were hanged by the Romans.

EFFECT:
Control of its large grain depots will provide all your cities with an almost unending source of foodstock.
Counts as a Granary in every one of your cities.

@@SETI Program
The Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI) was officially initiated by the United States in the latter half of the 20th Century. The purpose of the program was to find some sort of conclusive evidence that intelligent life existed beyond the confines of our planet. Employing banks of radio-telescopes and other detection equipment, SETI scans the skies hoping to find proof of extraterrestrial life in the form of radio transmissions and other activity. Although the program has yet to find such proof, the effort has produced many useful benefits to astronomy, telecommunications, and other high-tech fields.

@@Shakespeare's Theatre
SENATUS POPULUSQUE ROMANUS(SPQR).
For The Senate and the People of Rome.

In 510BC the Romans expelled their last king Tarquinius Superbus. From that time they are ruled by a Senate of the people's representatives.

During the first two Punic wars the Roman Senate exhibited unusual energy and determination, backed up by personal sacrifices, to ensure victory in the conflicts.
No matter how many blows Hannibal delivered, the Senators not once considered asking for peace. When an army was destroyed they gave orders for the raising of two others to take its place.
Not even after Cannae, when all of southern Italy rebelled, Macedonia entered the war and Syracusans declared independance did the senators lose their nerve.
And when an opportunity presented itself they were sure to grab it. Although not always choosing the right man for the job, the Senate managed to transmit her energy and resourcefulness to the common soldiers and army officers.
Decisive and relentless, the Roman "people" are the true heroes of the second Punic war.

EFFECT:
The people of Rome would never think of rebelling in such times of crisis.
All unruly citizens in Rome are made content.

@@Statue of Liberty
The Statue of Liberty is one of the largest statues in the world. Measuring over 300 feet tall from the base of her pedestal, the statue was originally constructed of copper plating over an iron framework and weighs over 250 metric tons. Designed by French sculptor Frederic Bartholdi, the statue with her upraised torch and the broken chains of tyranny at her feet, was presented to the United States by the French government in 1886 to commemorate 100 years of American independence. The statue itself, Liberty Island, and nearby Ellis Island became a national monument in 1924. For more than a century, the Statue of Liberty has stood at the mouth of the New York harbor. Often the first sight seen by immigrants arriving in America, Lady Liberty symbolizes the ideals of freedom upon which the United States was founded.

@@Sun Tzu's War Academy
Ever since the battle of Crimisus river (339BC), where her citizen corps was destroyed by the Syracusan Greeks, Carthage has entrusted her defence to foreign mercenaries. These men are recruited from her subject cities in north Africa, Iberia, Greece and a variety of other places.
The best troops Carthage fields are the north africans of mixed Phoenico-Libyan descent.

Despite the degeneration following the Peloponesian wars, Sparta's military reputation is unrivalled.
During the first Punic war the Punics employed the brilliant veteran Spartan officer Xanthipus who ground Regulus' legions to dust in the plains of Bagradas(spring 255BC).
It is also said, but is uncorfirmed, that Hannibal's chief of staff was a Lacedaemonian tactician.

EFFECT:
By hiring superb Spartan instructors to train the African army, the Carthaginian battle perfomance is increased and morale soars. Every new land unit gets out of the baracks skilled in the arts of war. Also any troopers that conquer their enemies are immediately considered veterans. 

@@United Nations
Established following World War II, the United Nations is an international organization dedicated to promoting world peace and security. The U.N. also attempts to achieve international cooperation in solving world problems concerning the environment, economics, and cultural issues. Although its peace keeping role is not always entirely successful, it has remained an effective forum for debate where all nations can voice their concerns on matters of worldwide importance.

@@Women's Suffrage
Syracuse's Grand Harbour is the most important naval base of Sicily and southern Italy. It's large facilities can provide supplies for hundreds of warships and merchant vessels.
It borders to the east with the small island of Ortygia and to the west with the district of Lysimelia just south of the merchant district of Achradine.
The Syracusan navy always found a stable base in the Grand Harbour.

When Admiral Bomilcar entered the Grand harbour in 214BC with fifty five Carthaginian warships in an attempt to lift the siege he was detered by the size of the Roman navy and withdrew. At the same time General Himilco with 25 000 men and 3000 cavalry had encircled Marcellus' men besieging Syracuse from land. He too hesitated when he saw the great numbers of the Roman army.
And thus an amazing opportunity to anihilate both the soldiers and navy besieging Syracuse was wasted.
The city lasted two more years, being resupplied by its Grand Harbour, until a virulent plague swept across the battlegrounds affecting all in its path and weakening the Carthaginian defenders.

EFFECT:
NONE

@UNIT_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the UNITS.PDE and UNITS2.PDE text ;files in the original Civilopedia, strung together to make one contiguous section. (French and German ;versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;
; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,
; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that
; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Settlers will be the 50'th (remember,
; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.
; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.
; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.
;
@@UNIT_INDEX
49,			; Settlers
21,			; Engineers
43,			; Warriors
46,			; Phalanx
2,			; Archers
33,			; Legion
47,			; Pikemen
36,			; Musketeers
23,			; Fanatics
45,			; Partisans
1,			; Alpine Troops
48,			; Riflemen
34,			; Marines
44,			; Paratroopers
35,			; Mech. Inf.
29,			; Horsemen
13,			; Chariot
20,			; Elephant
14,			; Crusaders
32,			; Knights
19,			; Dragoons
12,			; Cavalry
3,			; Armor
11,			; Catapult
7,			; Cannon
4,			; Artillery
30,			; Howitzer
24,			; Fighter
6,			; Bomber
28,			; Helicopter
39,			; Stlth Ftr.
38,			; Stlth Bmbr.
42,			; Trireme
9,			; Caravel
27,			; Galleon
26,			; Frigate
31,			; Ironclad
17,			; Destroyer
16,			; Cruiser
0,			; AEGIS Cruiser
5,			; Battleship
40,			; Submarine
10,			; Carrier
41,			; Transport
15,			; Cruise Msl.
37,			; Nuclear Msl.
18,			; Diplomat
50,			; Spy
8,			; Caravan
25,			; Freight
22,			; Explorer
-1,			; Extra Land
-1,			; Extra Ship
-1,			; Extra Air
-1,			; Test Unit 1
-1,			; Test Unit 2
-1,			; Test Unit 3
-1,			; Test Unit 4
-1,			; Test Unit 5
-1,			; Test Unit 6
-1,			; Test Unit 7
-1,			; Test Unit 8
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@AEGIS Cruiser
Cruisers have long served in the role of escort and defensive vessels, screening carrier task forces and amphibious assaults from enemy ships and aircraft. In recent years, the abilities of the cruiser have been upgraded significantly. In addition to their traditional five-inch guns, cruisers also carry batteries of Harpoon and Tomahawk missiles. The latest development in cruiser armament is the AEGIS surface-to-air missile system, which allows cruisers to target and fire their missiles more accurately and more effectively than ever before. The cruisers of today are highly capable of intercepting and destroying enemy submarines, surface ships, aircraft, and missiles.

@@Alpine Troops
The original phalanxes of Alexander that conquered the known world, have completely changed character by the time of the Punic Wars. The tendency in the Hellenistic era was towards heavier arms and armour and as such the phalanx transformed into an cumbersome and unmanueverable instrument that was unable to even turn about and defend itself when attacked from the flanks or rear. Despite the degenaration of its dogma, the phalangites are still considered the best soldiers in the Mediterranean.
Tactics have changed litle since Alexander's days. The phalangites form in deep ranks, maybe 16 deep, and use their weight to add to the impetus of the attack. The phalanx's basic tactical unit is the speira (256 men). Equipment among the phalangites varries according to their placement within the speira. The front ranks have heavy plate armour, large round bronze shield (60cm diameter), thracian helmet, metalic greaves, short sword and wield a sarissa pike 5-7 meters long(Polybius says 6.3m). After the fifth rank armour decreases, and possibly the rear ranks have no armour at all.
Greek generals were perfectly aware of the dangers the phalanx was exposed to and took the necessary precautions. Cavalry and light troops covered its flanks, and operations on rough ground were avoided.
Unfortunately all the battles against the Romans were fought on rough terrain and with a cavalry inferiority.

@@Archers
The Roman legionary was the best trained and drilled infantryman of his time. Although many times poorly led he could be counted on, when in battle, to show determination, innovativeness and refusal to accept defeat.
The Triarii are the old veterans and form the reserves of the legions. Their name literally means "third liners". They are expected to enter battle only in the direst of circumstances either as a last chance to claim victory or to save the honour of the legion and go down in a blaze of glory. The Triarius still retains his old hoplite style hasta spear and can usually afford good armour.

@@Armor
The rise in the use of semi-automatic and automatic firearms in the late 19th and early 20th century led to the demise of horse-mounted cavalry. Attackers lost a significant advantage in both scouting and deployment as a result of the cavalry's vulnerability. It was only with the development of tanks, armored mobile attack vehicles equipped with high caliber guns, that a weapon was found which could once more be used to punch a hole through enemy field forces. First appearing in World War I, armored attack vehicles moved quickly and struck with power, while still possessing an effective defensive strength. Tanks are a powerful weapon against any ground unit.

@@Artillery
Artillery is a general term covering several varieties of large caliber weapons including mortars and field guns. Mortars fire an explosive projectile in a high arc, and are particularly effective against small, concealed targets. Field guns, long-range weapons that fire their projectiles in a flat arc, are used primarily for their ability to penetrate hard targets. Powerful enough to batter opposing forces even behind the strongest fortifications, artillery is also able to move quickly from one firing position to another. This is an important capability when fighting a moving battle or when avoiding enemy fire.

@@Battleship
The battleship was once the most powerful vessel on the seas. Heavily armored and difficult to destroy, its massive guns could accurately fire heavy projectiles at targets miles away. The battleship had two primary functions: clearing the seas of enemy ships and bombarding enemy coastal targets, usually in preparation for an invasion. The battleship's importance began to decline in World War II when the increasing use of fighters and bombers launched from aircraft carriers greatly extended the range of naval conflicts. Ship-to-ship combat became less frequent than long-range air attacks against enemy battle groups. The last of the U.S. Navy's battleships was decommissioned shortly after the Vietnam War, but the four battleships of the Iowa class were remodeled and recommissioned in the 1980's.

@@Bomber
Finding herself embroiled in a war against a sea power as was Carthage, Rome realized that she too must take to the seas. Ingenius as ever the Romans understood their crews held no chance against the veteran Phoenicians. The Roman advantage lay in their superb infantrymen and naturally they invested in that. The Corvus was a large wooden plank that grappled the enemy ship immobilizing it, allowing legionaries-turned-Marines to board it. It proved an extremelly successful tactic and the Romans won the first Punic war.
Roman marines were armed in the same manner as the legionaries.
After Cannae, in a time of emergency, 1.500 marines, serving with the fleet in Ostia under Marcellus, hastily reinforced Rome.

@@Cannon
Closely following the invention of gunpowder, the development of the cannon caused a revolution in siege warfare. Invented by a German monk in the 14th century, early cannons used gunpowder charges to fire rocks or metal balls. The cannon forced a redesign of most fortifications because the straight, high walls surrounding most cities could be easily destroyed by direct fire. This was the fate of the walls of Constantinople, which had held against countless sieges for over a thousand years. The cannon quickly assumed an important role on the battlefield.

@@Caravan
Trade has been a major source of income to civilizations throughout history. Journeying to distant lands, caravans exchanged their loads of goods for money or other items of value. In addition, the traders who accompanied the caravans often brought back new knowledge about the advances made by the civilizations with whom they did business. Marco Polo, for example, went with traders to China. He remained there for many years, and brought back much valuable information to the West.

@@Caravel
The quinquereme was the standard Carthaginian warship, so-named because five oarsmen manned each bank of two or three oars. During the first Punic war Hierro II of Syracusse provided shipwright plans and the Romans build a navy overnight; Livy has the Romans increasing each bank of oars from two to three.

@@Carrier
The aircraft carrier first came into widespread use during World War II. Carriers act as floating airfields, carrying fighters and bombers far from friendly territory to be launched against enemy targets. This allows an air strike against targets on both land and sea that would otherwise be far out of range. Carriers also have the capability to launch nuclear weapons. The range of the aircraft launched from carriers forever changed the methodology of naval battles. Opposing fleets could now engage in battle without either fleet ever entering the other's visual range, ending the dominance of the battleship as the strongest vessel on the sea.

@@Catapult
Among the specialised troops that fought in the second Punic war are the slingers recruited from the Balearic islands.These warriors are famous in the ancient world for their skill in handling their simple but effective weapons, which are capable of great accuracy and of crushing metal helmets and cuirasses.Their skill with the sling is developed from childhood learning the art from their fathers.The average Balearic warrior will carry three types of slings with him of different length and sizes to throw missiles at short,medium and long range;It is common that many warriors will also carry a short sword and a caetra(small buckler) for hand-to-hand protection.

@@Cavalry
Cavalry was traditionally neglected by the Greeks, in favour of heavy infantry. The situation was somewhat different with the Italian Greeks however. Aristocratic traditions and contact with italian tribes led to a development, to some extent, of the cavalry arm. Unforunately prosperity and years of peace have done much to impair Italian combat prowess and as Pyrrhus found out, the degenerated residents of southern Italy are in no possition to resist any invader, Roman or Punic.
As it was custom for the time, horsemen are responsible for arming and equiping themselves and thus their equipment varies. Boetian and thessalian helmets are popular and obviously a javelin r spear is preffered as the main weapon.
When the Athenians invaded Sicily during the Great War they found themselves extremely vunerable to Syracusan cavalry attacks. Sadly things have changed since then.

@@Chariot
Ancestral enemies of the Romans, many Gaulic tribes pledged their support to Hannibal for his upcoming campaign. Unfortunately they bore little sympathy for the Carthaginians either, being in general unreliable troops. However as long as Hannibal provided them with spoils and victories, they could be counted upon. Along with the Spaniards they formed the expendable parts in Hannibal' army.
Their horsemen usually carry a long Celtic sword and an 8ft(2,4 meters) spear, along with a round shield for protection. The bulk of their cavalry wears little or no armour, except for the nobles who can afford mails.

@@Crusaders
Numidian light horsemen provided the best cavalry of the era. An irreplacable part of Hannibal's army they ridded their african steeds without a bridle. Carrying a small shield and quite large javelins they were ideal for pursuit and harrying enemy troops, but rather innefective as shock cavalry.
Their change of sides indirectly led to Hannibal's defeat at Zama (201 BC).

@@Cruise Missile
One of the most effective weapons in modern military arsenals is the cruise missile. Cruise missiles such as the AGM-86 and the Tomahawk can be launched against a strategic target hundreds of miles away, traveling low to avoid radar and other means of detection, and hitting its target with unnerving accuracy.  They can also be used against short-range, tactical targets such as ships. In this role, it is often possible for a single, $1 million missile to seriously damage or even destroy $80 million warships. These versatile weapons can be launched from air, sea, or land with equal effectiveness.

@@Cruiser
The upper classes of the Celtic tribes were a warrior caste who lived for war. While fiercely brave, the Celts were undisciplined and their tactics consisted solely of a ferocious charge at the enemy in order to engage him man-to-man. The Celtic warrior was chiefly a swordsman, and superbly skilled as such; under Hannibal's command they added tactical nous to their repertoire and were a serious enemy for Rome.

@@Destroyer
Destroyers are small escort ships that serve a variety of useful functions. These light, fast vessels were used extensively in World War II to provide air and sea cover for carrier groups. One of the primary functions of the destroyer is to locate and destroy enemy submarines. Using their sonar equipment to locate the subs, and their batteries of depth charges and torpedoes to destroy them, the destroyer forces of World War II were the key to the success of many crucial naval operations. Modern destroyers are still used in much the same role, as escorts for larger vessels and as submarine hunters. In addition to five-inch guns, the arsenal of today's destroyer includes antisubmarine helicopters, anti-ship cruise missiles, and the Phalanx system for defense against anti-ship missiles.

@@Diplomat
Diplomats serve their homeland in a variety of ways. Their primary function is to maintain contact with other civilizations, and report on any developments of interest. Diplomats are also capable of engaging in less reputable activities, including sabotage of enemy production; the theft of civilization advances; and the subversion of enemy troops and cities. Although they have no combat value, diplomats are nevertheless potent weapons if utilized properly.

@@Dragoons
The province of Iberia was a huge manpower pool for Punic, and later Roman, authorities to draw from. The indigenous population although generally unruly and turbulent provided mercenary troops to all armies that requested them, be it Carthaginian or Roman. These mercenaries served in their own contigents ,armed with their traditional weapons. Along with the Gauls the Spanish were the expendable elements in Hannibal's army.
The Hispanic cavalrymen were used as shock cavalry by Hannibal. Ussually carrying a round shield, long spear and a falcata sword they fullfilled their role adequately.

@@Elephant
The Carthaginian army, as most late Hellenistic armies, domesticated and employed the Elephant in battle. The Punics used the african variety of these behemoths ,smaller, and found in the jungles of  Morrocco. The Punic war Elephant was ridden in battle without a howdah or armour. This "ancient tank's" main purpose in battle was to terrorize enemy troops and offer a screen against cavalry(horses wouldn't approach the large animals). Unfortunately the Elephants themselves were prone to attacks of panic, when assaulted by light troops, and many times were driven back to their own lines only to cause more havoc to friendly forces than they had caused to the enemy.
At the plains of Bagradas(255, spring) the Greek mercenary general Xanthipus trampled Regulus' legions with an elephant charge.

@@Engineers
Carthage's agricultural economy and aristocratic system of goverment promoted the gaps between the social classes. Rarely did the native Carthaginians of pure Phoenician stock occupy themselves with the manual labours that agricultural production depends upon; the subject north african population was used instead. Carthage's coastal location and extensive fertile hinterland made both merchantilic and agricultural development possible and the african fields proved the main source of income for the lower class.

@@Explorer
Consul Lucius Aemilius Paulus was handed office in 216 BC. Along with his colleage Gaius Terrentius Varro they tried to end the Second Punic War by defeating Hannibal in the field. Commanding a grand total of 80.000 men ,the largest army in Rome's history, they met Hannibal's 35.000 at Cannae on the second day of August, 216 BC. The Roman system of consular command in altenate days proved catastrophic once more as Paulus led the army to its destruction. Fortunately for him fate ensured his death in battle, leaving the unfortunate Varro to take the blame for the calamity.  

@@Fanatics
Certain circumstances, such as strong religious beliefs or a totalitarian system of government, can "inspire" citizens or factions to nationalism that approaches maniacal fervor. Fanatical groups can often succeed in seemingly hopeless situations, fighting and defeating superior enemy forces. Often, fanatics pursue military and terrorist activity for years, even decades, before they can be caught or stopped. Their strength for both attack and defense comes from their willingness to fight for the ideals they believe in, and, if necessary, sacrifice their lives in the name of their cause.

@@Fighter
Ancient warships were not strictly categorized into types as with modern vessels. There were triremes(three rows), hepteres(seven), quinquiremes(five) and many other variations of designs. Even the known ship types are not totaly understood by modern scholars(f.e a seven rows ship would be unmanuevrable at best), so the generic term galley is commonly used.
Generally naval superiority in the ancient world meant an advantage in transportation rather than the ability to threaten land bases. The Roman naval superiority after the first Punic war translated into Roman dominance of the sea lanes of the Adriatic and western Mediterranean. During the Hannibalic war Roman galleys intercepted many a time valuable supplies destined for Italy and more importantly a diplomatic mission from Hannibal to Macedon.

@@Freight
Trade has been a major source of income to civilizations throughout history. Journeying to distant lands, caravans exchanged their loads of goods for money or other items of value. In addition, the traders who accompanied the caravans often brought back new knowledge about the advances made by the civilizations with whom they did business. Marco Polo, for example, went with traders to China. He remained there for many years, and brought back much valuable information to the West.

@@Frigate
The frigate was a fast and powerful sailing warship that evolved to fill several important naval roles, primarily to raid enemy shipping. These three masted ships were lighter and faster than the European great ship or man-of-war, and usually carried 36 or fewer guns. The frigate was powerful enough to overcome most of its prospective opponents and fast enough to escape those it could not outgun. Because of their speed and strength, frigates were often employed as escorts for merchant vessels during times of war. The frigate remained the most useful and dominant naval vessel until the development of the ironclad.

@@Galleon
Large galleys suitable for the transportation of both goods and materiel were used extensively during the Punic wars, as in any naval conflict. Heavy and unmanoueverable, they more commonly fell victims to storms rather than enemy action. During combat the warships formed a protective cycle around the precious supply vessels as done f.e in Ecnomus(256 BC) during the First Punic war. 

@@Helicopter
The province of Iberia was a huge manpower pool for Punic, and later Roman, authorities to draw from. The indigenous population although generally unruly and turbulent provided mercenary troops to all armies that requested them, be it Carthaginian or Roman. These mercenaries served in their own contigents ,armed with their traditional weapons. Along with the Gauls the Spanish were the expendable elements in Hannibal's army.
Many Iberians fought with light infantry tactics, carrying only a caetra( round buckler) for protection, hence their name. They performed the skirmishing role in the Punic army.

@@Horsemen
Cavalry was generally an underdeveloped arm in the Greek world untill the rise of Macedon. Philip II revolutionised warfare by introducing long pikes to his infantrymen and more importantly by raising the importance of cavalry. His son, Alexander III, used this new army to conquer the known world. The ratio of cavalry to infantry in the highly mobile Macedonian army of the 4th century was 1:6. The Heteroi or "companions" cavalrymen were best cavalrmen of their day.
In the later Alexandrian world,or ,as it was later called, Hellenistic world, infantry regained its dominance in the battlefield, owing it largely to the neglect of cavalry forces. In the later Hellenistic Macedonian army the ratio of cavalry to infantry was 1:20. Adding in this the decline in the quality of training that followed after Alexander's death, then the reasons behind the mainland Greek cavalry's bad perfomance in all later conflicts are pretty clear. In Cynoscephalae(197 BC) the horses panicked at the sight of Roman elephants, and at Pydna(168 BC) the Companions fled the field before coming into contact with the Roman horsemen.

@@Howitzer
The howitzer is a specialized piece of artillery. As originally designed, the howitzer was a cross between the short-ranged mortar and the long-ranged field gun. When fired in a high arc, the howitzer shell was able to achieve the mortar's effectiveness against small, concealed targets. When fired in a flat trajectory, the shell had more range than the mortar and the penetration power of the field gun. Howitzers were easier to transport than other types of heavy artillery due to their smaller size, and could be mounted on wheels and towed by a truck. Modern light howitzers fire a variety of specialized ammunition, and their accuracy now makes them more efficient and lethal than older heavy howitzers and field guns.

@@Ironclad
Mercenaries formed the core of most armies in the Hellenistic era.An exception to this were the Romans who while they did sometimes used mercenaries they generally trusted their citizens.Carthage on the other hand widely employed mercenaries leaving her citizen's Corps to guard the city itself.
In general Mercenary soldiers were recruited in bands that used the same fighting style and had uniformal equipment. For example Pyrrhus of Epirus landed on Italian soil with 20.000 hoplite mercenaries.Iberian troops employed by both Carthage and Rome were fighting according to their own ethnic style.

@@Knights
The Roman cavalry arm, unlike the infantry, is poorly trained and often worse led. To qualify for the cavalry, one has to hold the rank of equite(knight) and posses large enough property to support his horse.
Being a strong democratic society, Rome has naturally invested in the development of her infantry, neglecting her horsemen. Traditionally the cavalry forces in the legions are made up by the Latin allies. Cavalry equipment is not uniformal since every equite is required to provide his own armaments. Boetic style helmets and spears are popular among the cavalries of the time, being heavily influenced by Hellenistic standards. 

@@Legion
The Roman legionary was the best trained and drilled infantryman of his time. Although many times poorly led he could be counted on, when in battle, to show determination, innovativeness and refusal to accept defeat.
The Velites are the skirmishers of the Roman legions. Recruited among the youngest and poorest men they are armed with 4ft(1,2 meters) javelins, sword and a 3ft(1 meter) shield made of wicker and covered with hide. Their only other defence is a helmet. It is common for many of them to wear wolf or bear skins over their helmets.

@@Marines
The Gaulic tribes of the north are still unpacified. Following their defeat at the Celto-Roman war of 225 BC they have withdrawn and are attempting to restore their power before taking on the Romans again. Most of the alpine Gaulic tribes have prommised Hannibal their support for the upcoming conflict, but few(espesially the Allobroges) are still extremely violent and aggressive against any who tresspass their territories.
Inhabiting the harsh mountains of northern Italy they are eager to ambuss any armies that come across. Most of their warriors are armed with mail armour, wield the classic Celtic long sword and are ferocious in combat.
During the Alps crossing, Hanibal's army (as all Punic armies) with its large baggage train, that included huge sums of gold for the payment of the troops, became the Celts' prime target.

@@Mechanized Infantry
The province of Iberia was a huge manpower pool for Punic, and later Roman, authorities to draw from. The indigenous population although generally unruly and turbulent provided mercenary troops to all armies that requested them, be it Carthaginian or Roman. These mercenaries served in their own contigents ,armed with their traditional weapons. Along with the Gauls the Spanish were the expendable elements in Hannibal's army.
The basic Iberian infantrymen are termed Scutarii, from their large scutum shield. They commonly form medium and heavy infantry and carry a special gladius short sword, a spear and a heavy javelin. 

@@Musketeers
The first armies of Carthage were comprised of her very own Phoenician citizens.In 339 BC a huge force under Hamilcar and Hadrubal(common Punic anmes) landed in Liybaeum on the west coast of Siciliy, aiming to make a clean sweep of the island. Timoleon, a noble tyrant hater, ralied the Syracusans and attacked first.He caught the enemy host as they were crosing the Crimisus river and cut them to pieces.The Punic army numbered 70.000 men of which 10.000 were Carthaginian heavy infantry that included the infamous Sacred Band(2.500).Unfortunately for Hasdrubal and Hamilcar most native Carthaginians fell in the battle.
Since then the Carthaginian state fields solely mercenary armies.The Sacred band was reinstated of course, but never campaigned outside the city, notable excemption being the "Truceless war" immediately following the first Punic war where the returning mercenary soldiers rebelled against the African Senate. Carthage's citizen Corps ,under Hamilcar Barca, massacred them all in a final engagement near Tunis.
The Sacred Band is armed in much the same manner as the hoplite armies and carry in battle white shields and white plummed helmets. At the time of the second Punic war the Phoenician citizen corps(including the Sacred band) numbers 20 000 foot and 4 000 horse.
 
@@Nuclear Missile
The deployment of atomic bombs at Nagasaki and Hiroshima at the end of World War II changed the world's standards for measuring military power. Nuclear weapons can eradicate ground forces and armored divisions, and flatten cities with their awesome explosive power. In the years following World War II, arsenals of nuclear weapons were built up rapidly by opposing nations, each fearing the capabilities of the other. This massive arms build up has acted as a deterrent to full-scale war, since all the governments involved are aware of the consequences should such a war take place. The threat imposed by the huge nuclear arsenals of the world powers may one day be eradicated by the development of the Strategic Defense Initiative, or SDI, a system designed to destroy enemy missiles in flight before they can reach their targets.

@@Stealth Bomber
Traditionally, the Romans had been armed with a short thrusting sword of Greek type. A dramatic change occured when Scipio Africanus took Cartegena in 209BC: a large number of Iberian swordsmiths were captured and subsequently used by Scipio to manufacture the superb Spanish short-sword, or gladius hispaniensis. The Roman swordsmiths had been unable to equal the extremely high-quality forging that was the chief value of the weapon, and which allowed greater penetration of an opponent's armour. The secret of this forging process was now passed on to the Roman smiths; the Roman forces that landed in Africa in 204BC were entirely equiped with the gladius hispanicus and its use contributed to Scipio's victory.

@@Stealth Fighter
The Peltasts -named from their distinctive "pelta" type shield- are the most common type of light troops found in the Greek world. Although at first the term aplied only to Thracian light troops, the widespread usage of their techniques made the name applicable to light troops of other nations as welll. The peltasts are armed with a number of javelins which are hurled to the enemy, a short sword, maybe a helmet and of course a small round "pelta" shield.
@@Submarine
Great ships of war specialized for sieges made their appearance during the Hellenistic era. Before that seaborne assaults on cities limited themselves to a blockade. The Macedonians under Philip II were the first to mount catapults on ships in order to facilitate assaults on port cities. By the time of the Punic war, sea siegecraft has evolved and ships now carry ballistae, great catapults and in many instances Siege Towers. Heavy and cumbersome though, these mamooths are completely unsuitable for naval combat.

@@Transport
Light troops were usually employed in ancient warfare as skirmishers and reconnaissance. Of course neglected in the classical Greek world they proved detrimental for the conquests of Alexander the Great. Unable to stand against regular heavy infantry in pitched combat they carry only a javelin or throwing spear, and wear only a helmet(commonly of boetian type) for armour. As it is standard for anceint and medieval societies light troops are recruited from the poorer classes.

@@Trireme
The trireme was the first ship designed for war. Introduced by the Greeks, triremes were powered by three banks of oars on each side, manned by well-trained oarsmen. These oarsmen were highly paid professionals or patriotic citizens, not slaves and prisoners as depicted in fiction. A huge, bronze "beak" mounted at the bow of the ship was used to ram and sink enemy ships. Because of its long, narrow hull, the trireme was very unstable in all but the calmest waters, and as a consequence its crew rarely ventured out of sight of land for long periods of time, lest the ship be caught in a storm and sunk.

@@Warriors
In times of crisis, in the absence of regular soldiers, the citizens themselves take up arms to defend their property. Often poorly armed and trained they are however no match for seasoned troops.
When Scipio the younger stormed Carthago Nova(210 BC) a hastily formed citizen militia, although heavily outnumbered, gave a good account of itself causing severe casualties to the Romans.In the end though the superior training, numbers and equipment of the Romans tell.

@@Paratroopers
Ancestral enemies of the Romans, many Gaulic tribes pledged their support to Hannibal for his upcoming campaign. Unfortunately they bore little sympathy for the Carthaginians either, being in general unreliable troops. However as long as Hannibal provided them with spoils and victories, they could be counted upon. Along with the Spaniards they formed the expendable parts in Hannibal' army.
The bulk of Celtic warriors fought on foot. Frenzied and unreliable in battle ,having little regard for tactics, they are quite effective under the proper leadership. In combat they wield the classic Celtic long sword, carry a large round shield and usually march half-naked. 

@@Partisans
Partisans are militant groups who pledge their support to a leader or a system of government. Partisans differ from fanatics in their methods. Whereas fanatics are usually radicals prone to use terrorist tactics, partisans are usually trained soldiers who practice the more organized tactics of guerrilla warfare. Partisan groups have existed at various times throughout history. Partisans were particularly active in the Nazi occupied countries of Europe during World War II, where their acts of sabotage against their conquerors often kept German troops busy quelling partisan uprisings while they should have been fighting on the front lines. Because of their unflagging dedication to their cause, partisans make formidable opponents.

@@Phalanx
The Roman legionary was the best trained and drilled infantryman of his time. Although many times poorly led he could be counted on, when in battle,to show determination, innovativeness and refusal to accept defeat.
The Hastatus and Princeps are the backbone of the Roman legions, the average infantry men. They form the first and second lines respectively in the legion, when deployed for battle, and are selected among the full grown young men. Armed with a heavy long scutum shield, 2 pila (light and heavy) and a short sword, these perfectly drilled soldiers were responsible for Carthage's demise in the second Punic war.  

@@Pikemen
Apart from the normal field legions, the Roman republican army also deploys city legions, comprised of older men (over 50) and used strictly for garrison and police duties. They are usefull for freeing regular legions for frontline service, but it will be a rare day when a city legion takes the field.
These legionaries are usually armed with old hoplite spears and little armour.  

@@Riflemen
The best troops that Carthage fields are the Libyo-Phoenician infantry of mixed northern African and original Phoenician stock. These men fight in phalanx according to the Hellenistic system. Although few in number they form the core of Hannibal's army being proffesional soldiers.
Wearing heavy plate armour and armed with a 6 meters long pike they strike fear into the Romans when deployed in full battle formation.   
During his crosing of the Alps, Hannibal trusted the precious supply baggage with his African infantry-there was also a large sum of gold in that baggage that could attract the untrustworthy Gauls and Hispanics.

@@Settlers
Hannibal continiously faced severe logistical problems in the Italian campaign. He could scarcely find any reinforcements to replace his looses, or money to hire new soldiers. He had brought a supply train with him from Spain, but lost most of it during his crossing of the Alps. It was due to this inability to resupply that he eventually lost the war.
Supply trains for a Carthaginian army in the field usually carried, apart from foodstock and weapons, money with which to pay the mercenaries that comprised a large part of the Punic armies.

@@Spy
One of the factors that contributed to Hannibal's successes was his excellent intelligence corps.Always well informed, not only of the enemy possitions and strength but also of the opposing general's character, his intelligence officers,trained in the anti-guerilla campaigns in Spain, were among his most trusted soldiers.Not all of Hannibal's intelligence personel was employed for military reconnaissance however;Epicydes and Hippocrates for example, Hannibal's agents in Sicily, fuelled the fires of war in the island for more than 5 years by sowing discord in the Greek populace thereby drawing Roman resources away from the Italian theatre. 

@TERRAIN_AND_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the TERRAIN.PDE text file in the ;original Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;
; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,
; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that
; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Settlers will be the 50'th (remember,
; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.
; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.
; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.
;
@@TERRAIN_INDEX
0,			; Desert
8,			; Plains
3,			; Grassland
1,			; Forest
4,			; Hills
6,			; Mountains
11,			; Tundra
2,			; Glacier
10,			; Swamp
5,			; Jungle
7,			; Ocean
24,			; Oasis
12,			; Buffalo
3,			; Grassland
18,			; Pheasant
13,			; Coal
21,			; Gold
18,			; Game
23,			; Ivory
26,			; Peat
20,			; Gems
14,			; Fish
25,			; Desert Oil
30,			; Wheat
3,			; Grassland
27,			; Silk
31,			; Wine
22,			; Iron
16,			; Furs
25,			; Glacier Oil
28,			; Spice
15,			; Fruit
29,			; Whales
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

;Terrain Types
@@Desert
Usually buildings made of sturdy materials so they can endure extreme weather conditions, Granaries are used as storage houses for foodstock.Hannibal's army faced a tremendous logistical problem in its Italian campaign and could only ammend it by capturing enemy storage depots.The citadel of Cannae,used as a grain depot by the Roman army, and the rich region of Capua, became the landmarks of the penisular struggle.Control of a granary will greatly reduce your logistical problems.

@@Forest
Extensive areas of land covered by a thick growth of trees and related ground vegetation are classified as forests. There are several different types of forest, determined primarily by climate and the type of vegetation they contain. Forests of some type exist on nearly every continent in the world. Forests are a valuable source of natural resources, providing wood for paper products, building, and other purposes. The harvesting of trees must be done carefully, however. If not done in moderation, lumbering can destroy the natural habitat for indigenous animal species, and destroy the ecology of the land. Government regulations limiting the amount of trees that can be cut, and requiring the lumber industry to plant new trees to replace what they have harvested, help to prevent major ecological damage as a result of deforestation.

@@Glacier
Glaciers are large masses of ice and snow found in mountain regions, and near the north and south poles of the planet, where the rate at which snow and ice melt is less than the rate of snowfall. There are several varieties of glaciers: alpine and piedmont glaciers, which are formed in the valleys of high mountain regions; and ice cap and continental glaciers that may cover large portions of a continent. All glaciers are similar in composition, consisting of upper layers of softer snow and ice crystals, and lower layers of highly compressed, solid ice. Although some glaciers are stationary, some may move anywhere from a few feet to more than 100 feet each day, carving and reshaping the land as they go. Glacial regions are inhospitable, containing little animal life, no plant life, and virtually no resources of any kind.

@@Grassland
The areas of land between desert regions and forests in temperate and tropical climates usually consist of grasslands. These fertile regions, covered with various types of vegetation, once occupied large areas of North and South America, Africa, and Eurasia. These areas are characterized by marked wet and dry seasons, with annual periods of drought. Although many grasslands are naturally occurring, grasslands can also be created through deforestation of woodland areas. Grasslands are often cultivated and used as pastures and grazing lands. Because of the relatively low rainfall in these regions, the topsoil is high in nutrients. Grasslands are, therefore, well suited for growing crops, especially grain crops.

@@Hills
Rolling areas of the countryside, often found between plains and more mountainous regions are known as hills, or foothills. These areas, often covered with rich soil and grasses or heavily forested, are rich in resources. Coal, iron, lead, copper, and even gold and silver may be found in these regions, making them profitable areas for the mining industry. In areas where the below-ground resources are scarce, hill areas are often cultivated for agricultural purposes. Certain crops such as coffee and grapes thrive in these regions, given the proper climate.

@@Jungle
Ancient battles were commonly fought over the same areas.There were many battles of Chaeronea and many Cynoscephalae.The reason for this is the way ancient armies fought;large bodies of troops met head on in set piece battles.Therefore plains and fields were most suitable for the generals to properly manouevre their troops.The "fields" terrain in "Hannibal's war" represents just that;These areas are ideally suited for pitched battles and is highly recomended that the outnumbered Punic army takes advantage of these.Any unit on a field tile suffers a 50% defence penalty.

@@Mountains
Mountains are areas of high elevation, usually consisting of a chain of rugged peaks and valleys. Most mountains are formed when the plates making up the Earth's crust impact or slide against one another, raising layers of rock above the surrounding land. Mountains can also be formed by volcanic action, or through the effects of erosion. Although generally poor agricultural regions, mountains are often a source of great mineral wealth, with large deposits of gold and other valuable ores. Aside from their economic value, mountains provide a natural defensive barrier, shielding human settlements from invaders. Extensive mountain ranges can also greatly affect the weather patterns of a region by blocking and diverting wind and storms.

@@Ocean
The oceans and seas of the world cover almost three-quarters of our planet. They are home to millions of life forms ranging from microscopic plankton to whales, the largest mammals in the world. The animals and plants that inhabit the sea provide an excellent source of food. For centuries, coastal and island cultures have thrived on the resources and easy access to trade provided by the sea. Unfortunately, in many parts of the world, a combination of over-harvesting of marine animals and increased pollution have begun to threaten fragile coastal ecologies. Some species of marine life are seriously threatened. For example, the whaling industry, which thrived in the 19th and early 20th century, is responsible for hunting certain species of whales to near-extinction. Government regulations concerning the dumping of pollutants and the indiscriminate harvesting of marine life are constantly being updated in response to these growing problems.

@@Plains
Plains are vast, open tracts of land, usually with very few trees and covered with vegetation such as sage brush and various grasses. Plains are similar to grasslands, except that the topsoil is often not as well suited for growing food. Often, rich deposits of minerals are also found in plains regions. The indigenous plants of the plains makes them well suited for grazing. Large herds of buffalo and other animals can often be found roaming the area. With the proper irrigation, plains can be easily cultivated into adequate farmland for the production of grains and the raising of livestock.

@@River
Fed by natural springs, snow melt, and small tributary streams, rivers flow from mountains and other upland sources into larger rivers, lakes, and oceans. Rivers can be found in almost any terrain, from lush jungles and forests to arid desert regions. Since the dawn of civilization, towns and cities have grown up around rivers because the land in river valleys is usually very fertile, and well-suited for farming. In addition, the river provided easy and quick access between towns by boat for trade and travel. Water could be channeled from rivers via aqueducts to cities some distance from the river for the purposes of irrigation. Rivers are also good sources of mineral resources, and can provide power to run machinery and generate electricity.

@@Swamp
Swamps are wetlands which are largely uninhabitable by humans. These areas are usually flooded with water, ranging in depth from a few inches to several feet, due to heavy rainfall and overflow from nearby lakes and rivers. Although inhospitable for human life, swamps are teeming with both animal and plant life. Certain spices and useful substances such as peat, which is used as a fertilizer, can be found in abundance in certain swamp areas. Swampland is often drained, and converted into grassland and plains in order to make it more useful for resource and food production. However, environmental groups have been successful in slowing the destruction of wetlands, and setting up sanctuaries for the wildlife that inhabits these regions.

@@Tundra
 

;Special Resources

@@Buffalo
The plains areas of the world are inhabited by herds of many different varieties of animals. These herd animals have been hunted for food and pelts, throughout history. Many of these animals can even be domesticated and used for farming and other purposes. One of the most widespread herd animals is the sheep.Its wool can provide clothing for the winter, and its meat and milk are considered top quality products.

@@Coal
Copper is a redish malleable ductile element, one of the best conductors of heat and electricity(undiscovered attribute at this timepoint of course!).The largest supplier of Copper in the ancient world was the island of Cyprus, then a part of Antiochus' III kingdom. 

@@Fish
Prevailing winds, ocean currents, and deep water trenches can often combine to produce conditions that are optimum for fishing. In areas such as the Pacific coast of Central and South America, offshore winds push the warm surface waters out to deeper waters. Underwater currents push cold, nutrient-rich water from deep below the surface back toward the coast. The high concentration of nutrients in this colder water, caused by decomposition of organic matter at extreme depths, creates an ideal environment for fish and other sea life. Civilizations with access to areas such as this can significantly increase their food supply by establishing a thriving fishing industry.

@@Fruit
Quite often agricultural areas border the battlefields.Needless to say that at times of war the destruction inflicted on the surrounding area, before the two armies meet, is prolific.

@@Furs
 

@@Game (Forest)
@@Pheasant
Since ancient times, hunting of game animals has been important both for survival and for sport. Forested areas containing a large concentration of deer, elk, and smaller game were very valuable as a source of food for nearby settlements and cities. Though the widespread practice of farming domestic animals for food purposes has made hunting for sport much more common than hunting for food, certain animals such as geese, ducks, and deer are still frequently hunted and killed for food.

@@Musk Ox
 

@@Gems
Quite often agricultural areas border the battlefields.Needless to say that at times of war the destruction inflicted on the surrounding area, before the two armies meet, is prolific.

@@Gold
Gold has always been one of the most highly valued metals in the world. It is used in the manufacture of everything from jewelry to electronics, and has been established as the basis for monetary systems world wide. The factor that makes gold valuable is its rarity. Although gold can be found in many different areas, the most valuable deposits are large veins of gold ore running through mountains. When a large deposit is found, mining the deposit greatly boosts the economy in settlements and cities near the mine. An historical example of this phenomenon are the many towns that grew and prospered over a relatively short time during the California gold rush in America during the 1800's.

@@Iron
When early civilizations began to use metal to construct tools and weapons, the most commonly used metal was bronze. Bronze had the advantage of being readily available and easy to work with. Unfortunately, it was too soft to hold an effective edge. In the mid-14th century in central Europe, iron replaced bronze as the metal of choice, and the Iron Age was begun. Since this time, iron has been a valuable commodity. Deposits of iron and iron ore found in mountains are mined and processed for use in their raw form, and in the production of steel.

@@Ivory
Ivory, the hard substance of which elephant tusks are composed, is highly sought for the carving of ornamental objects. Most ivory is obtained from the tusks of African elephants, but other sources include the tusks of walruses and the fossilized tusks of prehistoric elephants and mammoths found in the northern glacial regions of the world. Although importation of ivory has been banned in many countries due to the fact that many of the species from which it is obtained are now endangered, the ivory trade was once a widespread and profitable venture.

@@Oasis
This particular granary storages food products.
Different types of stock must not be kept close.In explaining meat must not be kept close to vegetables, lest each others odours spoil their delicate tastes. The temperature must be cool and the sunlight minimized.

@@Oil
This particular granary storages wine products.
The temperature must be cool,(ideally 11-14 degrees Celsium-or the ancient equivelant for that matter!)the light minimal, and the vibrations as few as possible.The wine bottles must be alligned in a horrizontal possition for the cork to be kept wet. Needless to say odours from other foodstock such as vegetables or meat must be non existant.

@@Peat
Some bogs and swamps contain a brown organic material known as peat. Peat is made up of partially-decomposed plant matter, and has a high carbon content. Although dried peat is sometimes compressed and burned as fuel, the most valuable use for peat is as a fertilizer and mulch for farming and gardening. The high mineral content and its ability to retain moisture make peat well-suited to this purpose.

@@Silk
Mistletoes are parasitic evergreen plants with whitish beries that grow on the trunks of trees,especially apples.They are gathered and used mainly for decorative reasons.Ancient pagan religions held them high due to their rumoured magical properties.

@@Spice
Certain types of plants have evolved in such a way that they produce mild toxins or repellents that make their odor or flavor distasteful to animals. Oddly enough, many of these plants were sought by humans because of these smells and tastes. A profitable spice trade was begun by merchants in the Middle East before 2000 BC. Spices are used now, as they were in the ancient world, to preserve food and enhance its flavor. Although spices are now commercially cultivated and prepared, most types can still be found in abundance in nature. Many of the most popular spices, such as cloves and nutmeg, are extracted from plants that grow in tropical or swampy regions of the world.

@@Whales
Whaling, the hunting and killing of whales for oil and other byproducts, was practiced as an organized industry as early as 875 AD. By the 16th century, it had risen to be the principle industry in the coastal regions of Spain and France. The industry spread throughout the world, and became increasingly profitable in terms of trade and resources. Some regions of the world's oceans, along the animals' migration routes, had a particularly dense whale population, and became the targets for large concentrations of whaling ships, and the industry continued to grow well into the 20th century. The depletion of some whale species to near extinction led to the banning of whaling in many countries by 1969, and to a worldwide cessation of whaling as an industry in the late 1980's.

@@Wheat
Wheat has been a staple crop for civilizations occupying temperate zones of the planet since pre-historic times. There is archeological evidence that bread wheat was cultivated in southern Turkestan as early as 6000 BC, though naturally occurring wheat was probably used for food purposes much earlier. Throughout the temperate zones, wheat has become the primary food crop. It is particularly well suited for growth in vast, open plains like those found in the central United States.

@@Wine
Wine, a beverage made from fermented grapes, was first produced as early as 6000 BC. Its use spread throughout the Middle East and Egypt, and it quickly became a popular beverage of the ancient world. The grapes used for the making of wine are grown in many different regions of the world. Most vineyards are located in hills and valleys of temperate regions. Wine making as an industry has been perfected over several centuries. Many regions such as the Rhine and Loire valleys of Europe are well known for their fine wines, and derive a significant portion of their economy from wine making.

@GOVERNMENT_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the GOVERN.PDE text file in the ;original Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;
; The index is a mapping to the rules file. The labels to the right are the entries, IN ORDER,
; that are in the rules.txt file. The number to the left is the description below that
; corresponds to the rules entry. For example, Fundamentalism will be the 5'th (remember,
; the list is zero based) description below begining with @@.
; Only ONE entry per line, number MUST BE TERMINATED WITH A COMMA.
; The list must terminate with a -2. A -1 indicates no desription, do not list or index.
;
@@GOVERNMENT_INDEX
0,			; Anarchy
1,			; Despotism
5,			; Monarchy
2,			; Communism
4,			; Fundamentalism
6,			; Republic
3,			; Democracy
-2,			; MUST BE HERE! TERMINATOR!

@@Anarchy
Anarchy represents not so much a government type as the lack of any stable government. Anarchy occurs when your civilization's government falls, or when you decide to have a Revolution. After a few turns of Anarchy, you can rebuild a new government. Anarchy is similar to Despotism, except that the corruption rate is VERY HIGH. However, no taxes are collected during a period of Anarchy, and no scientific research is conducted.

@@Despotism	
In a Despotism, the ruler has absolute control over his or her subjects, and this control is usually enforced by the military. This system has a tendency to minimize individual freedom, and reduce the efficiency of production efforts. 

* Each unit above the city size costs one Shield per turn.
* Settlers eat one Food per turn.

Up to three military units in each city institute "martial law". Each of these units makes one unhappy citizen content.

Despotism has a high rate of corruption and waste. The farther a city is from your capital, the higher its level of corruption.

* Under a Despotism, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 60%.
* Any terrain square that ordinarily produces three or more of any resource (Food, Shields, or Trade) produces one less.
* Because of Despotism's high rate of corruption, it is almost always an inferior form of government. Try to switch to a Monarchy as soon as possible.

@@Communism
        THE GOVERMENT OF THE CARTHAGINIAN EMPIRE

Greek and Roman sources refer to kingship at Carthage in early times. It appears to have been not hereditary but elective, though in practice one family, the Magonid, dominated in the 6th century. 
The power of the kingship was diminished during the 5th century, a parallel development to the political evolution of the Greek city-states and Rome. Roman sources directly transcribe only one Carthaginian political term--sufet, the same as the Hebrew shofet, generally translated "judge" in the Old Testament but implying much more than merely judicial functions. At some stage, probably in the 4th century, the sufets became the political leaders of Carthage and other western Phoenician settlements. 
Two sufets were elected annually by the citizen body, but all were from the wealthy classes. Real power rested with an oligarchy of the wealthiest citizens, who were life members of a council of state(called a Senate; 300 members) and decided all important matters unless there was serious disagreement with the sufets. A panel (30 in number) of judges chosen from among its members had obscure but formidable powers of control over all organs of government.Additionally, citizens met in popular assembly which appeared to carry little weight until the second century, by which time the ruling class had completely lost the contest with the Romans. Leaders called upon each of the increasingly larger political bodies if they could not reach a concensus within the smaller group. Thus, if the the council reached consensus on a matter of policy, it simply instructed the suffetes to carry out its decision. If council members could not reach consensus, they referred the matter to the senate for debate and decision. If they senate reached consensus, it directed the suffetes to implement its decisions. If they senate could not reach consensus, it referred the matter to the popular assembly. Although the assembly would only be called upon in truly important and controversial matters, citizens enjoyed a great deal of freedom of speech in assembly. Suffetes and members of the council and senate, as well as generals, were elected by the citizenry as a whole.
Unlike a Roman consul, the Suffetes did not take part in military affairs.The Carthaginians appointed professional generals, who were separate from the civil government.
The Carthaginians rested judicial authority in a council of 104 judges chosen from the senate of 300 by a board of five elected magistrates. The judges were charged with supervising magistrates and preventing the suffetes from acting on tyrannical temptations.

INSTITUTIONS:
Legislative Responsibilities:  Council of 30 Nobles; Senate 
Religious and Financial Responsibilities:  Two Annually Elected "Shofetim" or "Suffetes" ("judges") 
Judicial Responsibilities: 104 Judges from Ruling Families 
Military Responsibilities: Elected Generals 
Oversight: Citizen Assembly (with property requirements for membership)

GAMEPLAY:

* Each unit beyond the third unit costs one Shield per turn.
* Settlers eat one Food per turn.

Up to three military units in each city institute "martial law". Each of these units makes two unhappy citizens content.

African politics are corupted to the core. The power struggle between the various factions
within the Senate sets back the war effort. The Iberian power base away from central African
control is the stage of assasinations and personal agendas. Coruption does pose a problem under this goverment.

*Hannibal's intelligence corps is extremely efficient. All your enlisted agents begin with veteran status.
*The tax/luxury/science sliders can't be set higher than 80%

*The Carthaginian Senate exhibits apathy and indifference to the outcome of the war.
*There are other, far more efficient ways to wage this war-and all include absolute control of the Barcas.

@@Democracy
A Democracy is ruled by a president elected by the people. The rulings of the president are subject to review by the Senate, a group of elected representatives who serve the best interests of the citizens. Democracy allows its citizens a higher degree of personal freedom and involvement than any other form of government.

* Each unit costs one shield per turn.
* Settlers eat two Food per turn.

Each unit that is not in a friendly city (or in a Fortress within three squares of a friendly city) causes two citizens in its home city to become unhappy.

Democracies experience no corruption or waste.

* Tax/Luxury/Science rates can be set to any level desired.
* Under a Democracy, each square that ordinarily produces at least one unit of Trade produces an extra unit of Trade.
* The units and cities of a Democracy are immune to bribery in any form.
* Your senate may force a peaceful solution in a conflict.

* Democracies can produce spectacular amounts of revenue and scientific research. However, because of the severe happiness restrictions on military units, this form of government tends to be viable only for large, advanced civilizations.
* Increasing your Luxury rate and building Improvements and Wonders can help alleviate unhappiness.

@@Fundamentalism
             THE GOVERMENT OF THE ROMAN STATE

The Roman government was carried out by a hierarchically arranged series of magistrates. Magistracies were normally held for one year. All senior magistrates automatically sat in the Senate(300 members). Strictly speaking, the senate had no statutory powers at all, and could only issue "advice" (decrees of the senate). However, since the Senate comprised the most important political men in the state, magistrates generally obeyed its decrees. For the duration of the war with Hannibal (218-202 BC) the senate has assumed control of overall policy, and controlls the prorogation(extension of a magistrate's power for another year) of all offices. The senate also oversees the state finances by controlling the distribution of money from the state treasury. 
Two Consuls were elected(appointed during Hannibal's war) each year to act as leaders of the state and commanders-in-chief of the army. They held the office for a year and couldn't be relected for 10 years to avoid any form of tyranny.
In times of crisis however, a Dictator could be appointed. His time in office could not be longer than six months. But for his time in office he possessed the absolute power of a king.
The office of dictator was a very ancient one, having originated from times when one military commander might be appointed over the armies of several Latin cities. This rank then had been referred to as 'master-of-infantry'. In republican days the title survived in form of the dictator's second in command who was 'master-of-cavalry'.
(Until 367 BC plebeians were barred from the office of dictator. The first plebeian dictator was appointed in 356 BC, Gaius Marcius Rutilus). 
After the disaster at Lake Trasimene the Senate declared a state of emergency and appointed Fabius Quintus Maximus as Dictator.

GAMEPLAY:

* Each unit beyond the eighth unit costs one Shield per turn (except Roman legionaries, which never require maintenance).
* Settlers eat two Food per turn.

A dictatorship is a strictly emergency measure implemented only in times of crisis. And in such times people have bigger things to worry about than their personal hapiness.

As such although corruption is severly limited it is still existant.
It seems corrupted souls take not into accord the crisis that has befallen the state-quite on the contrary, they aim to take advantage of it.

* Under Dictatorship, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 80%.
* Improvements that normally convert unhappy citizens to content citizens produce "taxes" equivalent to the number of people they would normally convert, and require no maintenance.

* Dictatorship eliminates all happiness problems and provides an excellent revenue.  The citizens understand that this is a war of survival!

@@Monarchy
A Monarchy is ruled by a single person, known as a monarch. The monarch's rule is less absolute than that of a despot, and he or she usually has the acceptance of at least the upper-class. The aristocrats under this system of government have some economic freedom, allowing the civilization to be more productive. 

* Each unit beyond the third unit costs one Shield per turn.
* Settlers eat one Food per turn.

Up to three military units in each city institute "martial law". Each of these units makes one unhappy citizen content.

Monarchy has a moderate rate of corruption and waste. The farther a city is from your capital, the higher its level of corruption.

* Under a Monarchy, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 70%.

* Monarchy is an excellent form of government for a young civilization.

@@Republic
A Republic is an assembly of autonomous city-states under the control of a central government. Although the central government has the ultimate say in matters that affect the society as a whole, the city-states are given a certain amount of latitude in the governing of local affairs. Decisions are made by the ruler, but are subject to review by a group of officials known as the Senate.

* Each unit costs one shield per turn.
* Settlers eat two Food per turn.

Each unit beyond the first unit that is not in a friendly city (or in a Fortress within three squares of a friendly city) causes one citizen in its home city to become unhappy.

Republics experience a low rate of corruption and waste. The farther a city is from your capital, the higher its level of corruption.

* Under a Republic, Tax/Luxury/Science rates cannot be set higher than 80%.
* Your senate may force a peaceful solution in a conflict.

* Switching to a Republic can give an astounding boost to your Science and Luxury revenues, although you will probably be forced to shift some Trade to Luxuries in order to prevent unhappiness.
* Republics make it difficult and expensive to keep a sizable army in the field, but building certain Improvements and Wonders can help to alleviate this problem.

@CONCEPT_DESCRIPTIONS
;
;Translation Note: The text in this section comes, verbatim, from the CONCEPT.PDE text file in the ;original Civilopedia. (French and German versions are .PDF and .PDG respectively.)
;

@@Disband
When a friendly unit becomes obsolete, costs too much to maintain, or causes unhappiness among your population, you might want to eliminate the unit. To eliminate a unit, order it to disband by holding down the shift key and pressing "D", or by selecting "Disband" from the Orders menu. Once disbanded, the unit is permanently removed from the game.

When a unit is disbanded inside a friendly city, half of the unit's production cost in Shields is added to the production of whatever unit, Improvement, or Wonder is currently under production in the city.

@@Fortify
Roman legions on campaign halted their march early enough each evening to build a completely fortified camp for the night. They had learned the value of defensive fortifications when under attack. Where possible, it was the standard practice of most armies to build defensive works of some type whenever expecting an attack. Fortified defenders had their fighting strength multiplied, making it much harder to defeat them.

Ground units can be ordered to fortify by pressing the "F" key, or by selecting "Fortify" from the Orders menu. The defensive value of fortified units is increased by 50 percent.

@@Fortress
Once your civilization has discovered Construction, Settlers and Engineers have the ability to construct fortresses. Fortresses can be utilized to defend city perimeters and to block key points of access from enemy armies. A properly manned fortress can provide an effective defense by doubling the defensive strength of all units stationed within. Unlike normal combat, units stacked within a fortress defend and are destroyed one at a time in battle, rather than being destroyed simultaneously. Fortresses themselves do not suffer damage in the attack.

Settlers and Engineers can construct fortresses by pressing the "F" key, or choosing the Build Fortress command from the Orders menu. Units within a fortress have their defensive strengths doubled. Under a Republic, units stationed inside fortresses built within three squares of their home city do not cause unhappiness.

@@Irrigation
When the early farmers moved down from the hills into the valleys of the Nile, Tigris, and Euphrates Rivers, they had to develop the technology of irrigation. The freshwater rivers passed through lands essentially barren due to the lack of rainfall. Through irrigation, water could be removed from the rivers and spread on the nearby land, making it suitable for farming.

Irrigation increases Food production in Grasslands, Plains, Deserts, and Hills. Only squares vertically or horizontally adjacent to water (Oceans or Rivers) or another irrigated square can be irrigated. After the discovery of Refrigeration, terrain squares can be double-irrigated to create farmland. Settlers and Engineers can be ordered to irrigate by pressing the "I" key, or by selecting "Build Irrigation" from the Orders menu.

@@Luxuries
The provision of Luxuries for your citizens is indicated by the goblet icons in the Resource Box of the City Display. Each two Luxuries makes one content citizen happy, or one unhappy citizen content. The amount of Luxuries a city produces is mainly determined by the percentage of Trade you have allocated to Luxuries. This can be adjusted using the "Change Tax Rate" command on the Kingdom menu. A city's Luxuries can also be increased by building certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World, and by converting citizens into Entertainers.

@@Mining
Early civilizations had little difficulty locating nearly pure deposits of useful metals, such as gold, silver, and copper, lying exposed on the Earth's surface. As time passed, the surface deposits were exhausted, and people began digging into the ground to look for more. Mining and excavation for metals and other valuable materials continues today.

Mining increases the Shield production of Deserts and Mountains by one, and increases the Shield production of Hills by 3. Settlers and Engineers can be ordered to dig mines by pressing the "M" key, or by choosing the "Build Mine" command from the Orders menu.

@@Pillage
The terrain improvements built by other civilizations (irrigation, mines, roads, etc.) can be destroyed by moving a unit into the improved terrain square and ordering the unit to pillage. This reduces the production value of the land, and forces your enemy to re-develop the terrain.

Units can be ordered to pillage by holding down the shift key and pressing "P", or by choosing the "Pillage" command from the Orders menu. The unit must be ordered to pillage once for each of the terrain  provements you want to destroy. A fully developed terrain square (farmland with a railroad, for example) must be pillaged four times in order to remove all improvements.

@@Pollution
Pollution is most commonly caused by the excessive production of Shields in a city; however, it may also be caused by large city populations (after the discovery of the Automobile), nuclear attacks, or the meltdown of a Nuclear Plant. When a city poses a potential pollution problem, skulls on yellow triangles appear in the Information Box of the City Display. The more skulls a city generates, the higher the city's chance of polluting a terrain square within the city radius each turn. When world pollution reaches sufficiently critical levels, there is a chance that global warming can occur.

Pollution can be cleaned up by moving Settlers or Engineers into the polluted square and pressing the "P" key, or choosing the "Clean Up Pollution" command from the Orders menu. Pollution production of cities can be reduced through the construction of certain City Improvements, or by reducing the city's Shield production.

@@Railroads
Railroads revolutionized transportation by providing a relatively cheap and fast method of moving people, raw materials, finished goods, and troops over great distances. Not only did they support and encourage industrial growth by dramatically reducing transport time and costs, they also spurred technological research. Railroads were among the first great industrial corporations.

Railroads can be built by Settlers and Engineers after the discovery of the Railroad. They are constructed by moving onto terrain containing a road, and pressing the "R" key, or by selecting the "Build Railroad" command from the Orders menu. Units moving along a railroad expend no movement points. Railroads increase Shield and Trade production by 50 percent (rounded down).

@@Roads
A network of good quality roads improves travel between cities. Roads were important to ancient civilizations for trade and the movement of troops. As technology grew, roads were improved. Modern, paved roads are passable in almost any type of weather, and can be traversed much more quickly than dirt roads.

Roads can be built by Settlers and Engineers by pressing the "R" key, or by selecting the "Build Road" command from the Orders menu. Roads can be built in any terrain except Oceans; however, they cannot be built in a River square until the discovery of Bridge Building. Units moving along roads expend only one third of a movement point per square, regardless of terrain type. Roads also increase the amount of Trade produced by Deserts, Plains, and Grasslands.

@@Science
The amount of scientific research contributed by a city is indicated by the beaker icons shown in the Resource Chart of the City Display. At the start of each turn, the science output of each city is added to the research project currently in progress, eventually resulting in the discovery of a new Civilization Advance. The more beakers each city produces, the faster new Advances are discovered. The amount of science produced by your civilization is primarily determined by the amount of incoming Trade you have allocated to science. This percentage can be adjusted by selecting the "Change Tax Rate" command on the Kingdom menu.

The science output of individual cities and your civilization as a whole can also be increased by building certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World, or by converting citizens into Scientists.

@@Sentry
Units ordered to go on sentry duty appear as gray silhouettes. These units are removed from the movement queue, and remain on sentry duty until another unit moves into their sight range or until they are manually reactivated. Units on sentry duty inside a city are automatically loaded onto ships (up to the ship's unit carrying capacity) when the ship leaves the city.

Units are placed on sentry duty by pressing the "S" key, or by choosing the "Sentry" option on the Orders menu. Damaged units placed on sentry inside a city become active when they have been completely repaired.

@@Shields
The production of raw materials by your cities is represented by shield icons. Thus, raw materials are commonly referred to as "Shields". The number of Shields produced by each city is displayed in the Resource Chart of the City Display. Shields are used to support units. Each unit might, depending on government type and other circumstances, require that its home city expend one Shield per turn to support the unit. Excess Shields not used to support units are used for the production of City Improvements, Wonders of the World, and new units.

Shield production largely depends on the type of terrain surrounding the city. In most circumstances, Shield production of a city can be increased through the construction of certain Improvements and Wonders. The construction of mines also improves Shield production in certain types of terrain.

@@Specialists
The citizen icons displayed in the Population Roster of the City Display represent the city's work force. Each citizen added to the roster is automatically put to work developing one of the terrain squares within the city radius. In certain situations it may become necessary to remove a citizen from terrain production in order to perform a specific task. Citizens so removed are called specialists. There are three types of specialist, each of which increases one of the three components of Trade produced by a city. Entertainers increase Luxuries, Tax Men increase Taxes, and Scientists increase Science production.

To create a specialist, click on any production square in the City Map. The production icons disappear from the square, and an Entertainer appears in the Population Roster. To create a Tax Man, click the Entertainer icon once. To create a Scientist, first create a Tax Man, then click the Tax Man icon once. Cities must be size five or larger to support Tax Men and Scientists.

@@Taxes
The Taxes collected by a city are indicated by gold coin icons in the Resource Chart of the City Display. Taxes are used primarily to pay the maintenance cost of City Improvements each turn. Any tax revenues not used for maintenance of Improvements are added to your treasury. The amount of Taxes generated by the city is primarily determined by the amount of incoming Trade you have allocated to Taxes. This can be adjusted by selecting the "Change Tax Rate" option from the Kingdom menu.

Tax revenues can also be increased through the construction of certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World, or by converting citizens into Tax Men.

@@Trade
Trade represents more than just the exchange of goods and cash between cities and civilizations. Trade also represents the exchange of knowledge and ideas, and the recreational travel and activities of the citizens of your civilization. The total amount of Trade produced by each city is represented by double-arrow icons displayed in the Resource Chart of the City Display. Trade is then broken down into three separate components: Taxes, Luxuries, and Science. The amount of Trade allocated to each of these areas is controlled by selecting the "Change Tax Rate" option on the Kingdom menu.

Trade can be increased through the construction of certain City Improvements and Wonders of the World. It can also be increased through terrain improvements, and through the establishment of trade routes.

@@Trade Routes
Trade routes are established by moving a Caravan or Freight unit into a city at least ten squares from the unit's home city. You receive an immediate cash payment on the turn that the route is established. On each ensuing turn, each city receives a Trade bonus for as long as the trade route exists. The farther apart the two cities are, the more valuable the trade route. Trade routes established with cities of a rival civilization tend to be more profitable than those established between friendly cities. Each city may have up to three active trade routes at any time.

When using the Advanced Trade rules, the value of a trade route is also affected by the type of goods traded. When trading a commodity that is demanded by the destination city, the trade route is much more profitable.

@@Veteran Units
During the American Civil War, soldiers who had never been in battle were said to have "seen the elephant" after being under fire for the first time. Afterward, they were considered veterans. History shows that well-trained, veteran soldiers are much more likely to survive a battle than inexperienced troops.

Units have a 50 percent chance of becoming Veterans each time they survive a combat encounter. Cities with a Barracks Improvement automatically produce Veteran units, as do all cities under the influence of the Sun Tzu's War Academy Wonder. The attack and defense factors of Veteran units is increased by 50 percent.

@@Corruption and Waste
As your civilization grows, you might notice that some of your cities are losing some of their Trade and Shields to corruption and waste. Corruption is Trade income that is lost to theft, embezzlement, and other illegal practices. Waste is Shield production that is lost to inefficiency. The farther a city is from your capital, the more corruption and waste it experiences. The amount of corruption and waste is also affected by the system of government you are using.
 
Corruption and waste, if left unchecked, can significantly slow the development of your civilization. Both corruption and waste can be reduced by 50 percent by building a Courthouse in the city experiencing the problem. The best solution, however, is to switch your system of government to a more advanced form. The more advanced the government, the less corruption and waste you experience. Communism and Democracy alleviate this problem altogether.

@@Unhappiness Due to Civ Size
Once you have built a certain number of cities, your citizens start to worry about your ability to effectively govern your civilization. When this occurs, additional unhappy citizens appear in each city.

The number of cities you can build before causing additional unhappiness is based on a number of factors, including game difficulty level and government type. The number of cities is higher for more advanced governments and lower levels of difficulty.

@@Combat Damage
It is now possible for units to be damaged as a result of combat. In each successful attack, a unit inflicts an amount of damage equal to its Firepower rating. The amount of damage a unit can sustain before it is destroyed is determined by multiplying the unit's Hit Point rating by ten.

The approximate amount of damage a unit has sustained can be determined by the length and color of the unit's damage bar (the colored bar at the top of the unit's shield symbol). A green bar indicates that the unit has lost from 0 to 33 percent of its Hit Points, a yellow bar shows that the unit has lost from 34 to 66 percent, and a red bar indicates that it has lost 67 percent or more.

Damage also affects the movement of a unit. The percentage of movement lost is equivalent to the percentage of Hit Points lost. Sea units can never have their movement reduced below two. The movement of air units is not affected by damage.

@@Transforming Terrain
In addition to the changes to Terrain that can be made through irrigation and mining, Engineers are able to transform map squares into a radically different Terrain types by using the "Transform" command on the Orders menu. Terrain transformation is particularly useful if the Terrain surrounding a city doesn't produce sufficient resources.

See the Civilopedia entries for each Terrain type for the results of Engineer transformation.

@@Airbases
After the discovery of Radio, your Settlers and Engineers have the ability to construct Airbases. Airbases act as remote refueling stations for Fighters, Bombers, Stealth Fighters, and Stealth Bombers. Strategically placed Airbases effectively extend the range of these units, allowing them to operate farther from friendly cities and Carriers.

To build an Airbase, chose the "Airbase" command from the Orders menu, or press the "e" key.

@@Airlift
After the discovery of Combined Arms, you have the ability to perform Airlift operations between your cities. Airlifting allows you to move units instantly over great distances. In order to Airlift a unit between two cities, both cities must have an Airport.

To Airlift a unit, move the unit into a city with an Airport and choose "Airlift" from the Orders menu, or press the "l" key. A menu of possible destinations appears. Choose the destination city from the menu, and the unit is instantly transported to that city. The unit becomes available for use on the following turn.

@@City Squares
;Translation Note: This refers to the map squares occupied by cities, not "Town Squares".
The resources utilized by a city are not only generated in the squares surrounding the city: they are also generated by the city square itself. The city square generates all the resources normally produced by the Terrain type on which the city is built. In addition, the Terrain square occupied by the city is improved to the maximum extent possible. The city square automatically contains a road, which is upgraded to a railroad when the Railroad Advance is discovered. The city square is also automatically irrigated or mined, depending on the type of terrain. Finally, if the city is built on Terrain that normally produces no Shields, one Shield is automatically added to the other resources generated in the city square. These enhancements ensure that the city square produces the maximum amount of resources possible.


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